While seafood is a highly traded commodity, lack of data has largely prevented examination of the firms and industries that are conducting the actual transactions. In this paper we use highly disaggregated data to provide an overview of the seafood exports from Norway, the world’s 2nd largest seafood exporting country, and a country where fisheries as well as aquaculture are important industries. The industry has a global reach with Norwegian seafood reaching 172 different countries in the period 2016–2020. While there are as many as 437 different exporting firms, this is relatively few firms compared to the 11,024 different buyers that import Norwegian seafood. There is significant heterogeneity in the export sector from very small firms handling only a few products to very large firms handling a large variety of products. The average firm is quite specialized and serves only 9 markets. However, there are also a handful of large exporters who ship products from all three main sectors in the Norwegian seafood industry to a large number of markets. The 10% largest companies make up 39% of the total export value and provide significant synergies between the aquaculture, pelagic and whitefish sectors.
Siden 1970-tallet har det vært en rivende utvikling innenfor handelsteori, motivert av empiriske observasjoner som ikke har passet med den klassiske teorien om komparative fortrinn. Ved komparative fortrinn drives handelen av forskjeller mellom land, og det utveksles varer som tilhører ulike næringer. Hva forklarer da den stadig økende handelen med liknende varer (som ølmerker) mellom liknende land (som Sverige og Danmark)? Og hvorfor domineres handelen av relativt få bedrifter, mens de fleste holder seg i hjemmemarkedet? Artikkelen ser nærmere på nyere handelsteori som kan bidra til å forklare slike observasjoner. Handel gjør det lettere å utnytte stordriftsfordeler i produksjon av differensierte varer innenfor en næring. Teorien viser at dette skaper gevinster ved handel som er uavhengig av komparative fortrinn. Et banebrytende trekk ved nyere teori er at produksjon og handel modelleres på bedriftsnivå. Ved å bringe inn forskjeller i produktivitet mellom bedrifter, skapes en ramme for å studere karakteristika ved bedrifter som opererer i internasjonale markeder. Tilgang til handelsdata på transaksjonsnivå – mellom kjøper og selger – har i tillegg åpnet et nytt univers for empiriske studier. I artikkelen gjennomgås og forklares noen viktige bidrag innenfor nyere handelsteori. Trekk ved norsk næringsstruktur drøftes avslutningsvis i lys av nyere handelsteori.
Gaasland, Ivar (2020)
Verdikjeden for mat - importbeskyttelse eller konkurranse?
Steen, Frode & Pettersen, Ivar (red.). Mot bedre vitende i norsk matsektor
Straume, Hans-Martin; Anderson, James L., Asche, Frank & Gaasland, Ivar (2020)
Delivering the goods: The determinants of Norwegian seafood exports
Seafood is the world’s most traded food product. In recent years, aquaculture has become an increasingly important part of seafood production, facilitating increased trade. However, despite evidence that fish farmers have better ability to target markets and ship their seafood through more efficient supply chains (due to the higher degree of control with the production process), little attention has been given to the fact that this is likely to influence trade patterns as well. This article investigates if trade margins for aquaculture products differ from trade in wild seafood products along three margins of trade, in addition to total export value on export data for Norway, the world’s second largest seafood exporting country. The results indicate aquaculture products are different. In particular, aquaculture products are influenced by more factors than fisheries products (such as transportation costs and per-unit shipment costs), highlighting another dimension where the control of the production process can be used to improve competitiveness. Moreover, exports of aquaculture products increase with a country’s wealth level, reflecting producers’ ability to target higher paying markets.
Geographical concentration of industries tends to be important for firms that depend on innovation and are intensive in the use of specialized technology and labor. In this paper, we investigate the interaction between agglomeration and trade performance in the Norwegian aquaculture industry. We include a variable for regional clustering in a standard gravity model and estimate its impact on different margins of trade. When controlling for destination country, we find that firms that operate in clusters obtain higher export prices and ship more frequently and in smaller bulks. For a highly perishable product like fresh salmon, this may suggest that firms in clusters are served by more efficient supply chains bringing the product to market with timely and efficient logistics.
While variation in unit value most commonly has been associated with quality in the trade literature, observed differences in prices between markets might also be explained by variation in market concentration and the degree of competition. Using transaction data on Norwegian exports of salmon, we introduce a Herfindahl index as a measure of competition in a standard gravity model. We find that competition typically is weaker in small and distant markets that due to high trade costs are served by relatively few firms. We argue that the anti-competitive impact of trade costs may explain price differentiation between markets even for homogeneous products.
Blandford, David; Gaasland, Ivar & Vårdal, Erling (2019)
Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Land Use, and Food Supply under the Paris Climate Agreement—Policy Choice in Norway
Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy, 41(2), s. 249- 264. Doi: 10.1093/aepp/ppy011
Asche, Frank; Cojocaru, Andreea-Laura, Gaasland, Ivar & Straume, Hans-Martin (2018)
Cod stories: Trade dynamics and duration for Norwegian cod exports
In recent years, trade dynamics have been receiving increased attention, and the general literature indicates that commodities are different. In this paper, the duration of trade relationships for Norwegian export firms to various markets is investigated for six product forms of one commodity, cod. The results indicate that the duration of most trade relationships is very short, and shorter than what is normally reported in the literature. Still, the substantial variation in duration by product form and factors influencing it, indicates heterogeneous dynamics for each supply chain even for slight differences in the characteristics of a commodity. Moreover, the short duration of trade relationships in the supply chains for Norwegian cod indicates that they remain very traditional food supply chains, with few attempts at reducing transaction costs through vertical coordination or relationships.
Bøndene hevder at jordbruket må skjermes mot klimatiltak som rammer norsk matforsyning,målt ved selvforsyningsgraden. Ved å endre sammensetningen av jordbruksstøtten i favør av matvarer som forurenser lite i forhold til næringsinnhold, viser vi at klimagassutslippene fra norsk jordbruk kan kuttes mye, eksemplifisert ved 40%, uten at elvforsyningsgraden svekkes og samtidig som budsjettutgiftene kan reduseres kraftig. Politikkendringen vil i tillegg bringe kostholdet mer i retning av de offisielle kostrådene til Helsedirektoratet, som anbefaler at vi spiser mindre rødt kjøtt og mer planteprodukter og fisk. Resultatene gir støtte til synspunkter i grønn skattekommisjon om at klimautfordringene også må reflekteres i jordbrukspolitikken.
Gaasland, Ivar (2015)
Fisk og jordbruk - hvem definerer Norges interesser?
Melchior, Arne & Sverdrup, Ulf (red.). Interessekonflikter i norsk handelspolitikk / Arne Melchior og Ulf Sverdrup (redaktører)
Blandford, David; Gaasland, Ivar & Vårdal, Erling (2015)
Trade liberalization versus climate change policy for reducing greenhouse gas emissions in agriculture: Some insights from Norway
Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy, 37(3), s. 418- 436. Doi: 10.1093/aepp/ppu038
Blandford, David; Gaasland, Ivar & Vårdal, Erling (2015)
Greenhouse gas abatement in Norwegian agriculture: costs or benefits?
Brunstad, Rolf Jens; Gaasland, Ivar & Vårdal, Erling (2012)
Anderledeslandet
Andersen, Peder; Henriksen, Ingrid, petersen, jørn henrik & Zobbe, Henrik (red.). Hvordan ser verden ud? 73 bidrag om økonomi, institutioner og værdier. Professor Niels Kærgård 70 år
A new round of trade negotiations under the World Trade Organization (WTO) was launched in 2001. One of the major aims of the Doha Development Round is to reduce agricultural protection and impose greater discipline on domestic agricultural subsidies, particularly those that are most trade distorting. In this article, we examine whether the proposed WTO modalities for agriculture will actually achieve this aim in the case of Norway. Norwegian agriculture, which accounts for less than one per cent of GDP and three per cent of domestic employment, is among the most heavily protected in the world (NILF, 2007). The OECD's producer support estimate for Norway was 62 per cent in 2008, the highest among the Organization's member countries (OECD, 2009). Norway has a complex system of farm subsidies involving deficiency payments, structural income support, acreage and headage payments, and a range of indirect supports. The system is buttressed by substantial import protection, which limits market access. Consequently, the extent to which Norway will have to change its agricultural support policies in response to new WTO disciplines provides an important indicator of how successful theese are likely to be.
Brunstad, Rolf Jens; Gaasland, Ivar & Vårdal, Erling (2008)
Optimal provision of public goods: implications for support to agriculture
Multifunctionality in agriculture. Evaluating the degree of jointness, policy implications
Vårdal, Erling & Gaasland, Ivar (2007)
Vestlandsbonden som produsent av fellesgoder
Rusten, Grete; Iversen, Nina M. & Hem, Leif Egil (red.). Våronn med nye muligheter Ressurs- og opplevelsesbasert verdiskaping på vestlandsbygdene
Brunstad, Rolf Jens & Gaasland, Ivar (2006)
WTO og norsk jordbruk: Liv laga eller kroken på døra?
Økonomisk forum, 60(1), s. 37- 47.
Brunstad, Rolf Jens; Gaasland, Ivar & Vårdal, Erling (2005)
Efficiency losses in milk marketing boards - the importance of exports
Nordic Journal of Political Economy, 31(2), s. 77- 97.
A milk marketing board (MMB) is a well known instrument for regulating the markets for dairy products. MMBs are based on price discrimination, and receipts from sales are pooled so that the farmers receive a single price adjusted for composition and quality. Using a numerical model, we find that the economic welfare cost of the Norwegian MMB, is as much as 26.3% of the milk production value. This computed cost is far larger than for the other countries with MMBs. The main reasons are that exports are a major ingredient of the Norwegian system, and that production costs are very high.
Brunstad, Rolf Jens; Gaasland, Ivar & Vårdal, Erling (2005)
Efficiency losses in milk marketing boards - the importance of exports
Nordic Journal of Political Economy, 31(2), s. 77- 97.
Brunstad, Rolf Jens; Gaasland, Ivar & Vårdal, Erling (2005)
Multifunctionality of agriculture: an inquiry into the complementarity between landscape preservation and food security
European Review of Agricultural Economics, 32(4), s. 469- 488.
Brunstad, Rolf Jens; Gaasland, Ivar & Vårdal, Erling (2005)
Multifunctionality of agriculture: an inquiry into the complementarity between landscape preservation and food security
European Review of Agricultural Economics, 32(4), s. 469- 488.
Brunstad, Rolf Jens; Gaasland, Ivar & Vårdal, Erling (2005)
Efficiency losses in milk marketing boards - the importance of exports
Nordic Journal of Political Economy, 31(2), s. 77- 97.
Brunstad, Rolf Jens; Gaasland, Ivar & Vårdal, Erling (2001)
Deregulation of the Norwegian Market for Dairy Products
The Food Sector in Transition - Nordic Research Proceedings of NJF-seminar No. 313, June 2000
Vårdal, Erling; Brunstad, Rolf Jens & Gaasland, Ivar (2001)
Multifunctionality of agriculture: An inquiry into the complementarity between landscape preservation and food security
Vårdal, Erling (red.). Multifunctionality of Agriculture
Brunstad, Rolf Jens; Gaasland, Ivar & Vårdal, Erling (2001)
Deregulation of the Norwegian Market for Dairy Products
[Mangler etternavn], [Mangler fornavn] (red.). The Food Sector in Transition - Nordic Research Proceedings of NJF-seminar No. 313, June 2000
Vårdal, Erling; Brunstad, Rolf & Gaasland, Ivar (2000)
Deregulation of the Norwegian market for dairy products
The Food Sector in Transition - Nordic Research Procedings of NJF - seminar nr. 313
Vårdal, Erling; Brunstad, Rolf & Gaasland, Ivar (2000)
Deregulation of the Norwegian market for dairy products
The Food Sector in Transition - Nordic Research Procedings of NJF - seminar nr. 313
Brunstad, Rolf Jens; Gaasland, Ivar & Vårdal, Erling (1999)
Agricultural production and the optimal level of landscape preservation
Land Economics, 75(4), s. 538- 546.
Brunstad, Rolf Jens; Gaasland, Ivar & Vårdal, Erling (1999)
Agricultural production and the optimal level of landscape preservation
Land Economics, 75(205), s. 538- 546.
It is often asserted that agricultural land yields significant amenity benefits that could be used as a rationale for some of the substantial support to agriculture occuring in many industrialized countries. This paper introduces a method for incorporating information on the willingness to pay for landscape preservation gained from contingent valuation studies in the objective function of a price-endogenous, mathematical programming model for the agricultural sector. Optimal levels of support, production, land use, and employment an then be calculated. The method is illustrated using data from Sweden and four U.S. Communities, and a programming model for the Norwegian agricultural sector.
Gaasland, Ivar & Vårdal, Erling (1998)
Tariff or quota protection - A case study of the Norwegian apple market
Applied Economics, 30(Reprint), s. 951- 957.
Tariffs and quotas are alternative trade instruments. In most cases i t has been shown that the use of tariffs results in a higher national welfare the use of quotas. Most of the research in this field has be en purely theoretical. This paper aims to give an empirical contribut ion. Referring to the Norwegian apple market, we analyse the effects of tarrifs and quotas. A trariff system is estimated to be slightly m ore efficient than a quota system (+2%). However, the distributional effects are substantial. Wholesalers and importers are main gainers i n quota system, while consumers and farmers are losers.
Brunstad, Rolf Jens; Gaasland, Ivar & Vårdal, Erling (1994)
Norges medlemsskapsavtale med EU på landbruksområdet
Sosialøkonomen, 48(7/8), s. 14- 21.
Gaasland, Ivar & Vårdal, Erling (1994)
Prisstabilisering i jordbruket
Norsk Økonomisk Tidsskrift, 108, s. 173- 188.
Brunstad, Rolf Jens; Gaasland, Ivar & Vårdal, Erling (1994)
Inntekter, sysselsetting og omstillinger
Simonsen, Jesper W. (red.). Norsk landbruk og EU - hva kan forskerne si?
Gaasland, Ivar (2017)
Makten over melken
Dagens næringsliv [Kronikk]
Gaasland, Ivar (2016)
Debatt om jordbruk Ytring NRK Radio
[Radio]
Gaasland, Ivar (2016)
Fremtidsbonden
NRK Ytring [Kronikk]
Brunstad, Rolf Jens; Gaasland, Ivar & Vårdal, Erling (2013)
Optimal agricultural policy and PSE measurement: an assessment and application to Norway
[Report]. Institutt for samfunnsøkonomi, NHH.
Brunstad, Rolf Jens; Gaasland, Ivar & Vårdal, Erling (2007)
Regional Aspects of Agriculture
[Report]. The Institute of Economics, Zagreb Friedrich Ebert Stiftung.
Prevention of depopulation in remote areas has traditionally been an important political goal in Western-European societies. This may be rationalized as follows: If the density of population in an area drops to very low levels, the cost of providing basic infrastructure may become prohibitively high. As long as total depopulation is undesireable, this is an argument for keeping the population density above some critical level. The most efficient way of achieving this goal would seem to be some general income support to all inhabitants in remote areas or a general wage sdubsidy to all industries and not support confined to a single industry. This paper introduces a method for incorporating information on the willingness to pay for regional activity in the objective function of a price-endogenous, mathematical programming model for the agricultural sector of Norway. Optimal levels of support, production, land use and activity in various regions are calculated. Our conclusion is that regional preferences do not affect the national activity level of agruculture, but affect the distribution of the activity level between regions.
Brunstad, Rolf Jens & Gaasland, Ivar (2007)
Proteksjonisme, fattigdom og norsk landbrukspolitikk
[Article in business/trade/industry journal]. ?, s. 74- 83.
Brunstad, Rolf Jens; Gaasland, Ivar & Vårdal, Erling (2007)
Optimal provision of public goods. Implications for support to agriculture
[Report]. Institutt for samfunnsøkonomi, Norges Handelshøyskole.
Vårdal, Erling; Brunstad, Rolf Jens, Gaasland, Ivar & Blandford, David (2007)
Optimal agricultural policy and PSE measurement
[Report]. Department of Economics, Norwegian School of Business and Adminstration.
Vårdal, Erling; Flåm, Sjur Didrik & Gaasland, Ivar (2006)
On Stabilizing or Deregulating Food Prices
[Report]. University of Bergen.
Vårdal, Erling; Brunstad, Rolf Jens & Gaasland, Ivar (2005)
Multifunctionality of agriculture: the complementarity between landscape preservation and food security
[Report]. Institutt for økonomi, Universitetet i Bergen.
Vårdal, Erling; Brunstad, Rolf Jens & Gaasland, Ivar (2003)
Efficiency losses in milk marketing boards - the importance of exports
[Report]. MANGLER.
A milk marketing board (MMB) is a legislatively specified compulsory marketing institution, and a common way to regulate markets for dairy products. MMBs are based on price discrimination. As price discrimination leads to unequal profitability between products, receipts from sales are pooled and farmers receive a single price adjusted for composition and quality. It is well documented that price discrimination through MMBs incurs an efficiency loss to the society. Earlier contributions, Ippolito and Masson (1978) and Serck-Hansen (1979), point to the fact that a particular high loss is incurred if export of dairy products is included in the MMB. It proves difficult to find examples where this is the case. MMB countries are either large with a low export share in dairy products (USA and Japan), have economies of scale (Australia) or exports are excluded from the MMB arrangement (Canada). We find Norway to be the only example. Using a numerical model of the Norwegian agricultural sector we show that substantial efficiency gain may be achieved by deregulating the dairy sector, mainly due to the elimination of exports. It is estimated that a transition to cost based pricing may increase the economic surplus by 1.4 billion NOK, which is 25 % of the production value. This computed gain from deregulation is far larger than for the other MMB-countries.
[Report]. Norsk institutt for landbruksøkonomisk forskning.
Brunstad, Rolf Jens; Gaasland, Ivar & Vårdal, Erling (2001)
Agriculture as a provider of public goods
[Academic lecture]. Seminar on the multifunctionality of agriculture.
Flåm, Sjur Didrik; Gaasland, Ivar & Vårdal, Erling (2001)
Equilibrium and price stabilization
[Report]. Senter for samfunnsforskning (SEFOS).
The main objective here are markets with stochastic demand and supply. Agriculture provide prime instances. A key concern is how a buffer agency may learn to stabilize prices. We model such learning and identify conditions under which the process may generate necessary input for comparative welfare analysis.
Brunstad, Rolf Jens; Gaasland, Ivar & Vårdal, Erling (2001)
Agriculture as a provider of public goods
[Academic lecture]. Seminar on the multifunctionality of agriculture.
Brunstad, Rolf Jens; Gaasland, Ivar & Vårdal, Erling (1998)
Deregulation of the Norwegian market for milk products
[Report]. Norges handelshøyskole. Institutt for samfunnsøkonomi.
In this paper we use a price endogenous mathematical programming mode l to estimate the national welfare losses induced by the Norwegian da iry policy. Firstly, we focus on welfare losses at the processing lev el due to price discrimination between different uses of the milk and cross-subsidisation of export. Secondly, we focus on inefficiency at the farm level due to small-scale farm units and a distribution of p roduction that does not reflect regional comparative advantages. Thir dly, we demonstrate that employment in depressed areas can be u pheld at far lower costs if the processing industry is deregulated and the rural farmers are supported through more direct payments.
Brunstad, Rolf Jens; Gaasland, Ivar & Vårdal, Erling (1998)
Deregulation of the Norwegian market for milk produkts
[Report]. Institutt for økonomi.
In this paper we use a price endogenous mathematical model to estimat e the national welfare losses induced by the Norwegian dairy policy. Firstly w focus on welfare losses at the processing level due to pric e discrimination between different uses of the milk and cross-subsidi zation of export. Secondly, we focus on inefficiency at the farm leve l due to a small scale farm units and a distrubution of production wh ich does not reflect regional comparative advantages. Thirdly, we dem onstrate that employment in rural areas can be upheld at far lower co sts if the processing industry is deregulated and the rural farmers a re supported throug more direct payments.
Hagen, Kåre Petter & Gaasland, Ivar (1997)
Oversikt over forskningsprogrammet i teleøkonomi ved SNF: 1992-1995
[Report]. Stiftelsen for samfunns- og næringslivsforskning.
Brunstad, Rolf Jens; Gaasland, Ivar & Vårdal, Erling (1997)
Agricultural production and the optimal level of landscape preservation
[Report]. Instiutt for økonomi.
Only market failures justify support to an industry in a welfare econ omic setting. The amenity value of the landscape can be treated as a public good. Agricultural production will have an effect on this valu e which is external to agriculture. Recent studies find that the will ingness to pay for landscape preservation (WTP) may be considerable a nd that the marginal willingnss to pay (MWP) decreases with the volum e and intensity of agricultural activity. In this paper we discuss wh ether the amenity benefits of the agricultural landscape justify the level and form of agricultural support in a high support country like Norway. Based on existing studies of WTP we infer the likely value o f parameters in a WTP function for Norway. We include this WTP functi on in the objective function of a price endogenous mathematical progr amming model for the Norwegian agricultural sector. Given no other su pport to agriculture than that generated by the MWP for landscape pre servation, the optimal size of Norwegian agriculture measured by empl oyment is less than 20% of the current level, while land use is betwe en 50% and 60% of today`s use. The simultation experiment indicates t hat only a minor fraction of today`s generous support would be upheld in optimum, while production would drop to low levels. But even if t he landscape preservation argument is not able to defend today`s leve l of production and employment, it may be strong enough to keep a maj or part of today`s agricultural surface under cultivation.
Vårdal, Erling; Gaasland, Ivar & Brunstad, Rolf (1995)
Utvikling eller avvikling - jordbruket ved en skillevei
[Scientific book]. ad Notam Gyldendal.
At ressursbruken i forbindelse med jordbrukspolitikken tas opp til kr itisk vurdering, er absolutt på tide. Norge ligger i verdenstoppen nå r det gjelder støtte til jordbruket, og ressursbruken i jordbruket fo rtrenger andre viktige samfunnsoppgaver. En hovedårsak til de høye ko stnadene er de mange ambisiøse målene for jordbrukspolitikken. I Utvi kling eller avvikling - jordbruket ved en skillevei drøftes holdbarhe ten til de ulike argumentene som benyttes for å sikre jordbruket særv ilkår. Det konkluderes med at det stort sett bare er eksistensen av k ollektive goder som matvaresikkerhet og kulturlandskap som kan forsva re offentlige inngrep i jordbrukssektoren. Men målene knyttet til pro duksjon av kollektive goder gir ikke grunnlag for verken den formen e ller det nivået som jordbruksstøtten har i dag. De kollektive godene kan tilbys mye billigere til samfunnet og med en betydelig lavere pro duksjon, syssel setting og arealbruk enn i dag. Dette krever en kraft ig og hurtig omlegging av jordbrukspolitikken. I boken skisseres de n ødvendige skritt i riktig retning.
Brunstad, Rolf; Gaasland, Ivar & Vårdal, Erling (1994)
Agriculture as a provider of public goods
[Report]. [Mangler utgivernavn].
Gaasland, Ivar & Vårdal, Erling (1994)
Tariff or quota protection - A case study of the Norwegian apple market
[Report]. [Mangler utgivernavn].
Vårdal, Erling; Gaasland, Ivar & Brunstad, Rolf (1994)
The transition of Norwegian agriculture to international market conditions: Consequences for landscape preservation
[Academic lecture]. Workshop on Agricultural Policy and the Cultural Landscape at H olmenkollen Park Hotel, NFR Prosject number 106815/720.