An account of the Nordic media welfare state that does not consider the library sector, its historical mandates, and the role it plays in securing universal access to media content while also contributing to sustaining the media industries, is missing a piece. With this chapter, we aim to contribute to a deeper understanding of the role of public libraries in relation to a wider media context. As holders of collections of media – books, but also audio and audiovisual media – as well as important enablers of public discussions and events, libraries co-exist with media industries in multiple ways: They purchase media content, promote various forms of media, and compete with the mass media for the attention of the public as well as the resources of the state. We ask questions about the intersections between libraries and the media industries: What are their mandates, social remits, and forms of regulation? What are the challenges that face them today? What are their roles within an extended media welfare state?
Liguzinski, Maciej; Colbjørnsen, Terje & Tallerås, Kim (2024)
Perceptions of e-lending in Scandinavian libraries: tension and harmony between institutional logics
This study examines e-lending dynamics in Scandinavian public libraries, by exploring the relationship between libraries and publishing houses. We ask how representatives of both fields perceive the public library’s role. Public libraries and publishers have traditionally served different roles in the book sphere: the library as a key cultural policy institution providing access to information and culture, and the publishers as involved in the production of books, operating on commercial premises. This relationship is affected by the change from ownership to licensing of digital book collections, which occurs along with changes on the national book markets. As a theoretical and analytical tool, the study uses the institutional logics perspective to explore the relations between different perceptions. We argue that this relationship can be illuminated through the dynamics of public service logic, market logic and digital logic. The study is empirically based on 26 in-depth interviews, interviews with representatives of Danish, Norwegian and Swedish major libraries and trade publishers. Findings indicate that the relationship is nuanced and multifaceted, more than if it relied on a simple opposition between the public and the market. Both libraries and publishers share a common understanding of public service and market logics; however, they differ in perceptions of library’s role which is amplified by digital logic. The study also indicates that e-lending dynamics are influenced by cultural policies but with different outcomes in the three countries.
Colbjørnsen, Terje (2024)
Joe Rogan v. Spotify: Platformization and worlds colliding
In May 2020, the music streaming service Spotify acquired exclusive rights to The Joe Rogan Experience, one of the world’s most popular podcasts. While the music streamer had started its foray into the podcasting world with acquisitions in 2019 of podcasting networks and production companies, the investment on Rogan was widely seen as a strong commitment. Rogan’s podcast is known to be humorous, crass, and often controversial. As the show dealt with highly contentious issues surrounding the COVID-19 pandemic, criticism emerged, both from medical professionals, from artists and from within Spotify. The most widely published pushback came from artist Neil Young in January 2022, as he posed an ultimatum: ‘They can have Rogan or Young. Not both’. The Joe Rogan v. Spotify case can be seen as indicative of how the platformization of podcasting creates tensions and conflicts: Worlds collide as the logics of music publishing and news publishing crash with Rogan’s free reign podcasting world. As a result, Spotify, as a podcasting platform and publisher, finds itself in unfamiliar terrain. This paper connects the details of the case with theories of platformization, looking specifically at the role of Spotify as a comparatively new distributor of podcasts and a driving force to connect various audio formats. Drawing on media industry studies and scholarship on media policy and regulation, the paper ends with a discussion on how to understand the complexity of Spotify’s role as a publisher and a platform and Rogan’s role as a platform creator.
Johansen, Madeléne & Colbjørnsen, Terje (2024)
Digital spilldistribusjon i folkebiblioteket. Hvordan spill som service utfordrer tilbudet til norske folkebibliotek
Streaming services are creating significant shifts in Scandinavia, with audiobooks distributed through subscription-based services accounting for about a quarter of sales in the Swedish and Norwegian book markets. In this study we ask: What are the common and diverging themes of trade talk on audiobooks and streaming ser- vices in Sweden and Norway? Our findings indicate that trade talk in the two coun- tries differs distinctively. The differences suggest that discussions over audiobooks and streaming form two quite distinct discourses: A business and innovation dis- course which is dominant in Sweden and a cultural policy discourse which is domi- nant in Norway.
Colbjørnsen, Terje; Brenna, Brita & Edquist, Samuel (2022)
Curating collections in LAMs
Libraries, Archives, and Museums in Transition: Changes,
Challenges, and Convergence in a Scandinavian Perspective,
Den norske bokbransjen er støttet og regulert gjennom en rekke litteraturpolitiske virkemidler. Disse settes nå under press grunnet endringer relatert til den digitale litteraturens utbredelse, nye aktørers inntog i markedet og omseggripende endringer i tilstøtende politikkområder og i samfunnet forøvrig. Det er langvarige og gode ordninger for bransjen til å påvirke politikken gjennom den korporative påvirkningskanalen. Samtidig vil de pågående endringene også kreve påvirkningsarbeid fra interesseorganisasjonene gjennom lobbyvirksomhet, for å sikre at de litteraturpolitiske virkemidlene oppdateres i takt med samfunns- og bransjeutviklingen. Denne studien handler om hvordan bransjeorganisasjonene søker å påvirke politikken gjennom den korporative kanalen og gjennom lobbyvirksomhet. Nærmere bestemt har vi studert hvordan lederne i bokbransjens mest sentrale organisasjoner snakker om deres erfaringer med bruk av disse to kanalene for påvirkningsarbeid og hvordan dette eventuelt endres som en konsekvens av endringer relatert til nye aktører, digitalisering og andre endringer i bokbransjens omland.
Music and television streaming services present users with abundant catalogues of content available on demand. We investigate whether users respond by narrowing or widening the diversity of content they consume. Further, we examine how the different logics characterising music and television streaming are mirrored in the number of streaming services people use. To do so, we compare non-, sporadic, regular, and frequent users of television and music streaming services. Findings from a cross-sectional survey in Norway show that frequent streamers consume a wider variety of genres and rely on more services. Our results also indicate that streaming has gone from a first-mover activity to a standard consumer mode. This study indicates that we can expect continued growth in television streamers, whereas the music streaming industry seems more consolidated.
Sundet, Vilde Schanke & Colbjørnsen, Terje (2021)
Streaming across industries: Streaming logics and streaming lore across the music, film, television, and book industries
This article explores streaming across the cultural industries, drawing on 39 interviews with CEO/top-level industry executives working in the Norwegian music, film, television, and book industries. We examine two broad questions: What do key industry players see as the main opportunities and challenges of streaming?
To what extent do industry players compare with and learn from other industries when making sense of, and seeking solutions to, the main challenges? Drawing on theories of media industry logics and industry lore, the article identifies a collective understanding of turmoil and uncertainty. While informants across industries form similar notions about the impact of streaming and emphasise the need to learn from other industries, solutions to challenges are typically sought within industryspecific frames. Our findings suggest that even if streaming is a cross-industrial trend, strategies are based on industry-specific logics and notions.
As the Covid-19 pandemic hit the world and Norway in 2020, libraries were among the institutions that were impacted. The social mission of libraries to stay open and offer services, cultural experiences and reliable information was put under pressure. In this article we depart from a survey of 843 library workers across public, academic, special, and school libraries in Norway. The survey was conducted in June-August 2020 and contains quantitative and qualitative data on how library workers experienced lockdown and the responses from libraries. The article addresses how the Covid-19 crisis impacted libraries’ social missions and what circumstances contribute to crisis management in Norwegian libraries. We use institutional theories on isomorphism and institutional pressures, as well as general theories on crisis management, to analyse the material. We conclude that the pandemic has shown the potential of digital library services, but also find that closed library premises strongly influenced how libraries were able to fulfil their social missions. Our findings also indicate the need for a sectorial leadership in times of crisis. In our discussion, we describe a situation where structures and plans to manage situations of crises are lacking. For libraries to be part of society’s democratic infrastructure, their roles and social missions need to be considered in crisis management plans.
Colbjørnsen, Terje; Hui, Alan & Solstad, Benedikte (2021)
What do you pay for all you can eat? Pricing practices and strategies in streaming media services
The role that prices play for streaming media services is yet to be comprehensively and comparatively analysed with an international outlook. In this paper, we present results on music and video streaming prices, based on analysis of a data set of prices and information on pricing models and price developments. The data set spans 2008 to 2019, five streaming services, and nine countries across four continents. We provide comparative overviews of real prices and developments over the years studied and purchasing power-adjusted pricing across countries, as well as country-by-country assessments. Finally, our results show significant divergences in the pricing practices and strategies of Spotify and Netflix. The access-based pricing structure of streaming comes forth as highly contingent on demand-side factors and competitive structures.
Colbjørnsen, Terje; Tallerås, Kim & Øfsti, Olav Marius (2020)
Contingent availability: A case-based approach to understanding availability in streaming services and cultural policy implications
Streaming services have emerged as increasingly important access points for cultural content, often promising, as Netflix does, ‘unlimited entertainment’. However, the actual conditions of availability remain under-examined. While streaming services typically contain a vast selection of objects, they certainly do not hold the total amount of all possible items. Streaming services thus pose new challenges for policy makers who wish to ensure access to, and availability of culture. In this paper, we build on previous research (Tallerås, Colbjørnsen, & Øfsti, 2019) to develop the term ‘contingent availability’ and discuss how cultural items are made available in streaming contexts. Departing from a pyramid model of availability, we investigate these levels empirically through a case-based approach. Nine Norwegian award-winning or critically acclaimed books, movies and TV series were strategically selected to highlight how availability in streaming services is contingent upon multiple conditions. For each case, we assess the ways in which Norwegian cultural policy influences production, distribution and availability of culture. We discuss how cultural policy measures do secure availability for most of the cases, but is unable to effectively combat fragmentation of availability.
Spilker, Hendrik Storstein & Colbjørnsen, Terje (2020)
The dimensions of streaming: toward a typology of an evolving concept
Based on research on the development of streaming solutions across media forms and industries, this article traces the dynamics and dimensions of the notion of streaming. It theorizes streaming as an evolving concept, and argues against strict, set and limited definitions such as those suggested by Lotz and Herbert et al. A short substantive and industrial history of streaming is provided, recognizing its many manifestations and variations. Five key dimensions are identified, and trends and traits within each of them discussed: (1) professional versus user-generated streaming, (2) legal versus piracy streaming, (3) on-demand versus live streaming, (4) streaming on dedicated versus multi-feature platforms, and (5) niche versus general-audience streaming. The article concludes by pointing out how streaming is a concept that metaphorically unites media research across industries, practices, and media forms, encouraging more comparative research.
Cultural Policies, Social Missions, Algorithms and Discretion: What Should Public Service Institutions Recommend?
Sustainable Digital Communities. 15th International Conference, iConference 2020, Boras, Sweden, March 23–26, 2020, Proceedings, , s. 588-595. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-43687-2_49
Digital media services, and streaming services in particular, filter and recommend content to their users by the use of algorithms. In this paper, we ask what happens when institutions like public service broadcasters, public libraries, as well as other media institutions who base their operations on public funding and social mission statements, implement similar algorithms. Can we think of alternate algorithmic principles? What should public service algorithms recommend, who would decide, and based on what criteria? In order to address questions such as these, we argue for a broad approach based on not only technological considerations, but also complementing perspectives touching upon how such institutions are situated in the media industries, relevant cultural policy frameworks and practices for handling quality assessments. Using examples from Scandinavian public service and media institutions, we indicate how the coding of algorithms have profound social and cultural implications. This short paper thus initiates a project with the aim of examining various algorithmic perspectives that could - and perhaps should - be taken into account when approaching issues of cultural policies, social missions and discretion in publicly funded culture institutions.
Colbjørnsen, Terje (2020)
The streaming network: Conceptualizing distribution economy, technology, and power in streaming media services
Despite there being more than a decade since the introductions of Netflix’ and Spotify’s online services, few attempts have been made to thoroughly examine and conceptualize streaming and streaming services across culture and media industries. The argument proposed here is that streaming constitutes a distinct form of digital media distribution network, what I refer to as the streaming network. The article asks what constitutes the parts or nodes of such a streaming network, and further what the power relationships between the various parts are. The analysis uses Spotify, Apple Music, Netflix, and Kindle Unlimited as examples, building on a wide array of primary and secondary document sources. The analysis contains a stepwise discussion and visualization of how human and nonhuman actors in this streaming network are connected by way of flows of content, data, and money, as well as by relationships of control, access, and exposure. The argument draws on theories of network power, platform power, and algorithmic power. The analysis highlights the asymmetrical relationships between, on the one hand, users and content providers, and on the other, streaming providers and device and software makers. No single actor in the network is able to exercise full control, but users and content originators are seen as particularly vulnerable. Streaming providers and device and software makers are able to maneuver the network to strengthen their relative position.
Pettersen, Cathrine T. & Colbjørnsen, Terje (2019)
Omnichannel and Digital-Only: Analyzing Digital Bookselling Operations in Four Norwegian Bookstores
Adapting to the digital age is a challenge for booksellers, resulting in paradoxical practices of providing digital books through brick-and-mortar stores, but also spurring innovations in the book trade. This article examines the digital operations of four Norwegian booksellers, looking specifically at how the combined forces of digitalization, internationalization and industry regulations affect their operations. Based on research interviews and business statistics, the paper finds that two of the selected booksellers represent an omnichannel business model, which includes seeking strategic benefits by combining digital and physical operations. The other two have a digital-only business model, offering digital content in novel ways, but struggling somewhat to gain the full advantage of their approach due to industry competition and regulatory hindrances.
Tallerås, Kim; Colbjørnsen, Terje & Øfsti, Marius (2019)
Relativ tilgjengelighet: Formidling og utvelgelse i strømmetjenester for film, tv-serier og digitale bøker
Strømmetjenester bruker gjerne algoritmer for å presentere og filtrere innhold, basert på prediksjoner og kalkulasjoner om hva brukerne liker. Anbefalings- og presentasjonsalgoritmene kan imidlertid sies å fungere som bare ett av flere nivåer der medieinnhold gjøres tilgjengelig. Før algoritmene utarbeider sine anbefalinger, er databasen som de tar utgangspunkt i, allerede strukturert på andre nivåer. I denne artikkelen utvikler vi begrepet «relativ tilgjengelighet» og diskuterer hvilke nivåer av tilgjengeliggjøring som gjør seg gjeldende i strømmetjenester. Vi argumenterer for at tilgjengeliggjøring må forstås som en pyramide med fem nivåer: ontologisk, teknologisk, juridisk, økonomisk og algoritmisk tilgjengelighet. Vi undersøker disse nivåene empirisk gjennom en analyse av et datamateriale fra Norsk filminstitutt, samt en egen undersøkelse av brukerrapporterte anbefalinger gjennom Netflix og Storytel. Vi finner at norske filmer generelt er dårlig representert i de mest utbredte strømmetjenestene. Filminnholdet er også spredt på ulike tjenester. En tilsvarende fragmentering finner vi også for det boklige materialet. Vi diskuterer også årsaker til manglende innhold og fragmentering. Artikkelen kan leses som en kritikk og nyansering av de mest dramatiske situasjonsbeskrivelsene og prediksjonene om algoritmenes makt. Vi konkluderer med at det er grunn til å undersøke mer kritisk hvilke rom algoritmene jobber innenfor.
Colbjørnsen, Terje (2018)
My Algorithm: User Perceptions of Algorithmic Recommendations in Cultural Contexts
Human-Machine Communication: Rethinking Communication, Technology, and Ourselves,
Colbjørnsen, Terje (2018)
Algoritmens ansikt: Brukeropplevelser av kvalitet og relevans i algoritmiske anbefalinger på kulturfeltet
Kvalitetsforhandlinger, , s. 465-486.
Colbjørnsen, Terje (2017)
Åpenhet i det digitale bibliotek: Om politiske føringer og gnisninger mellom kommersiell bokbransje og bibliotek i en digital tid
Irritasjonen ble så stor at Geir bestemte seg for å løse problemet selv
[Journal]
Colbjørnsen, Terje (2020)
Hvordan tenker et tidsskrift?
Norsk medietidsskrift (NMT) [Kronikk]
Colbjørnsen, Terje (2020)
Korona og «solutionism»
Norsk medietidsskrift (NMT) [Kronikk]
Colbjørnsen, Terje (2020)
NMT kikker under panseret
Norsk medietidsskrift (NMT) [Kronikk]
Tallerås, Kim; Colbjørnsen, Terje & Øfsti, Marius (2019)
Forskere: Norske Netflix tilbyr lite norsk film
[Journal]
Colbjørnsen, Terje (2016)
Vidåpne dører til vitenskapen? Åpen tilgang i teori og praksis
[Kronikk]
Colbjørnsen, Terje (2025)
Bypassing the access problem: Two alternative sources for media industry research
[Conference Lecture]. Event
Gaining access to information and informants in the media industries can be tricky. Indeed, to gain access to digital media companies like Netflix, Spotify and Amazon is virtually impossible, as they are risk-averse to the extent that they seldom share any internal information with researchers. How to deal with that issue? The presentation provides two alternative means of access to information concerning digital media companies, derived from research across media industries: 1) Using investor information such as annual reports, and 2) Using general media and trade press coverage.
Comparative Studies of Media Industries – Literature Review and Call for Action
[Conference Lecture]. Event
This paper delivers presents a theoretical discussion of the literature on media industries and media platforms, as well as an examination a discussion of the various kinds of research designs that media industries researchers have used to compare different media industries. A key challenge for furthering this research field is that most of the studies conducted are single-industry studies, which unfortunately reinforces the sub-fields around each industry as “silos” since comparative studies across of several in-dustries are rare. We argue that this is not only due to the complex nature of comparative research but also because of the difficulties ofaround defining and delineating “media industries”. Our contribution to the field is two-part: both an in-depth discussion of the literature and the complexities involved in conducting these comparative studies, as well as an overview of the different kinds of approaches and sampling strategies that we can be used.
Colbjørnsen, Terje (2024)
Loven mellom to permer. En analyse av de politiske prosessene bak Bokloven i 2012-2013 og 2022-2023
[Conference Lecture]. Event
Colbjørnsen, Terje (2024)
Drittsystemer og plattformer (evt. nye forretningsmodeller)
