Petter Gottschalk

Palgrave Macmillan

Journal of Economic Criminology 9 p. 1-7 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconc.2025.100167

Routledge

Nova Science Publishers

Palgrave Macmillan

Routledge

World Scientific

Ethics International Press

Policing and Society: An International Journal of Research and Policy p. 1-17 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/10439463.2024.2302612

This article presents research regarding impression management following a white-collar investigation and prosecution scandal by the National Authority for Investigation and Prosecution of Economic and Environmental Crime in Norway. The authority issued 39 press releases in one year, which communicate focus on less serious crime cases combined with deterrence by taking on cases without ever bringing them to court. Deterrence strategy by investigations implies that the authority passes penalties on suspects who never have a chance to defend themselves in court. The penalty is suffering from negative public attention, lack of job opportunities, and time spent in detention and interrogation as an accused where they have to explain themselves. The authority then behaves like a court where they punish people. However, that is a role assigned to judges and not to investigators or prosecutors. The authority argues that it is difficult to obtain the necessary information without a thorough investigation. While this is certainly true, a policing principle seems forgotten that an investigation should only be launched when it is somehow obvious that crime has indeed occurred by a criminal.

Journal of Economic Criminology 3 p. 1-7 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconc.2024.100051

Many countries have established national authorities to investigate and prosecute serious and complex white-collar and corporate crime incidents. This article reviews research literature regarding external challenges and barriers for national agencies in Norway (Økokrim), New Zealand (SFO), the United Kingdom (SFO), and the Netherlands (OSF). The policing study in this article is important as it illustrates dilemmas that governments need to address when reviewing their national fraud offices and economic crime authorities. While Økokrim in Norway seems reluctant to prosecute too complex economic crime cases, the SFO in New Zealand attempts prevention of deinstitutionalization, the SFO in the UK might have deterrence effects, while the OSF in the Netherlands is challenged by the private industry of corporate investigators. These are some of the challenges and barriers facing national authorities that are charged with the tasks of investigating and prosecuting white-collar and corporate crime at the national level. The identified challenges and barriers especially related to the convenience theory perspective should enable future research to identify relevant actions.

Journal of Financial Crime p. 1-14 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/JFC-03-2024-0097

Purpose: This study aims to identify perceptions of financial crime among students in six different countries. Design/methodology/approach: Survey research was conducted among students in India, Iran, Malaysia, Norway, Romania and the USA to compare the ranking of perceptions. Findings: The following three propositions for financial crime had most agreement among respondents: lack of oversight and guardianship, legitimate access to resources and heroic offender status. Research limitations/implications: Scholars involved in various countries conducted survey research at different points in time with little knowledge of each other’s survey populations and response rates. Practical implications: Crime convenience and, thus, attractiveness can be addressed by focusing on propositions finding the strongest agreement in the surveys. Social implications: Agreement and lack of agreement indicate priorities in fighting financial crime. Originality/value: The diversity of nations involved in survey research makes this study interesting.

Ethics International Press

Journal of Money Laundering Control 27(6) p. 1040-1050 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/JMLC-01-2024-0003

The purpose of this paper is to discuss the legal barriers to termination of an insurance arrangement where there is suspicion of money laundering when paying insurance premiums.

Journal of Economic Criminology 5 p. 1-7 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconc.2024.100078

The theory of convenience addresses white-collar and corporate crime. The theory is applied in this article to a case study of Norwegian publishing houses having to pay infringement fees because of competition act violation. Cartel members agreed and coordinated a boycott of a distribution channel. This article reviews the research literature on cartels before presenting the convenience case study. Combatting cartels is a matter of reducing the attractiveness and convenience of joining cartels. Guardianship, oversight, and controls are at the core of reducing deviance convenience. Detection is an element of oversight. However, detection is rare, as this case illustrated by email sent by mistake. Combatting cartels is a matter of control at the top of organizations where typically each chief executive officer (CEO) is involved. Therefore, the corporate compliance officer should never report to the CEO but rather to the chairperson on the board and to the external auditor.

Walter de Gruyter (De Gruyter)

Deviant Behavior p. 1-12 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2024.2341088

This article presents a review of the research addressing the seriousness of corporate crime and the convenience for corporate offenders. Insights from this review are important as detection and prevention of corporate crime is dependent on addressing convenience issues for offenders. The perspective in this article suggests that convenience is a matter of avoiding strain and pain, saving time and efforts, overcoming barriers where the fences are at their lowest to gain from business possibilities and to avoid business threats such as bankruptcy. The opportunity for deviance among corporate offenders is typically based on their high social status and their legitimate access to resources to do both the right things and the wrong things. The opportunity structure to conceal deviance consists of institutional deterioration, lack of oversight and guardianship, and sometimes also criminal market forces. This is a scoping review article to identify convenience characteristics of corporate offenses and corporate offenders.

Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management p. 1-16 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-03-2024-0031

Purpose This article reviews 69 press releases published by the Norwegian Økokrim from June 2022 to November 2023. The presented research applies the theory of focal concerns to identify the main themes in the press releases. Design/methodology/approach Serious fraud offices such as the Norwegian national authority for investigation and prosecution of economic and environmental crime (Økokrim) are facing many challenges when combating white-collar and corporate crime. Press releases represent an element of facing such challenges, as the messages are an important vehicle for the organization to disclose organizational activities to the public. Findings Three themes emerged: offender conviction, impression management and crime deterrence. Offender prosecution followed by offender conviction is at the core of Økokrim's business. Impression management serves the purpose of emphasizing the important role of the national authority in society. The subjective perception of detection and prosecution by potential offenders can be influenced by crime deterrence messages. Research limitations/implications Press releases are signals that may be interpreted in other ways. Practical implications When politicians are to review national authorities, they may want a slightly different serious fraud office. Social implications The deterrence effect is often not real for alleged white-collar crime. Originality/value Understanding a national authority in terms of its focal concerns based on press releases from the authority.

IGI Global

Journal of International Doctoral Research 11(1) p. 132-149

Research suggests that the news media may be biased in terms of both what criminal cases are reported and the focus of report from the selected criminal cases. Journalists report from courtrooms when the criminal cases have certain characteristics. According to Wilberg and Gottschalk (2014), potentially long prison sentences, money involved, and famous defendants are some of the characteristics when selecting and reporting from white-collar crime cases. White-collar crime refers to financial crime committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the course of a leading professional position by abuse of trust and access to resources (Gottschalk, 2022).

Deviant Behavior p. 1-10 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2024.2335546

Sanctions have criminalizing consequences. This paper addresses the issue of Russian businesses attempting to circumvent and evade sanctions by white-collar and corporate crime. The case presented in this paper concerns a Norwegian smolt production facility owned by Russians, who suddenly transferred ownership to a Norwegian because of the sanctions. It seemed that the Russians remained the real owners since the Norwegian paid nothing for the shares. While Norwegian police were reluctant to investigate the matter, a Norwegian insurance firm became worried that insurance premiums paid by the production facility in Norway could represent money laundering. This paper presents the case of potential money laundering by review of the literature on sanctions and by application of institutional theory. The fact that economic sanctions are problematic in themselves and in addition stimulate white-collar and corporate crime and even mafia business as exemplified in Iran, should be an important consideration against the trend of imposing sanctions on steadily more countries that are different from our countries.

Ethics International Press

Journal of Economic Criminology 5 p. 1-11 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconc.2024.100083

Perception of white-collar crime seriousness varies from unfortunate incidents that can be excused to a major crime that needs harsh punishment. Students at a university in Romania were asked about their perceptions of seriousness. On a scale from 1 (not serious) to 7 (extremely serious) most students responded by very serious (6) on most questionnaire items. Responses indicate that individual greed to benefit the person is the most serious, while a rational choice of crime is the least serious. This study concludes that students consider white-collar crime to be less serious when people involved use financial wrongdoings as a last resort to avoid personal/organizational bankruptcy. they seem more indulgent when financial crime is a result of omission/concealment of criminal activity.

Palgrave Macmillan

Journal of Economic Criminology 4 p. 1-7 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconc.2024.100059

Deferred prosecution agreements and similar arrangements are practiced in many countries when there is suspicion of corporate crime. It is an agreement based on a negotiation that permits the allegedly guilty party not to undergo a criminal trial if they avoid committing further wrongdoing for a specified period of time. This article reviews such agreements in light of two different situations where the corporation is actually guilty and where the corporation is actually not guilty. An innocent company signing such an agreement suffers from miscarriage of justice. A guilty company on the other hand can restore the convenience of committing corporate crime. This article argues that deferred prosecution agreements violate basic principles of justice. The research suggests that serious fraud offices and other public bodies need to be restored to enable complete criminal prosecution when there are suspicions of corporate wrongdoing. This suggestion is based on the assumption that the underlying problem is law enforcement incompetence at investigating and prosecuting corporate crime.

Journal of Forensic Practice 26(4) p. 1-10 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/JFP-04-2024-0014

Purpose This paper aims to make a contribution to the offender-based perspective when researching white-collar and corporate crime. Previously, the offender-based perspective has emphasized general characteristics of actors such as social and occupational status, respectability and power. Design/methodology/approach This paper presents categories of offender types in their roles when offending. Findings Based on the theory of convenience with 14 convenience propositions along three dimensions, it is possible to identify eight offender categories. Research limitations/implications Alternative theories for identification of offender categories might be applied in future research to compare with categories presented in this paper based on convenience theory. Practical implications These offender categories are labeled opportunist, illusionist, manipulator, ignorer, defender, reactionist, rescuer and controller. Social implications The offender-bases rather than the offence-based perspective is needed to increase law enforcement understanding of white-collar and corporate crime. Originality/value When researchers study the extent of seriousness of white-collar and corporate crime in the future, it is suggested that they use such labels to distinguish between serious and less serious offenders.

Journal of Economic Criminology 5 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconc.2024.100085

A defendant in criminal court should only be convicted if guilt is proven by the prosecution beyond any reasonable doubt. That is the burden of proof. Any doubt emerging should benefit the defendant. In this perspective, evidence from police investigations is challenged by defense lawyers to create sufficient doubt so that the defendant can be acquitted. In the current case study regarding prosecution of the former president at the International Biathlon Union, this article reviews defense lawyers’ attempts to create sufficient doubt regarding corruption to cause acquittal of the defendant. Evidence from police investigation in Austria and Norway ended up in competing narratives of the prosecution and the defense with the metaphor of the courtroom as a theater scene. In a policing and criminology perspective, this research is important as it documents the space of knowledge rivalry between prosecution and defense depending on the extent of convincing power found in the evidence that is resulting from police investigations.

Berghahn Books

Oxford University Press

Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice 18 p. 1-8 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/police/paae015

The national authority Økokrim was established several decades ago to become a policing centre of excellence in the investigation and prosecution of economic and environmental crime in Norway that is especially concerned with white-collar and corporate crime. This article focusses on deterrence effects from Økokrim investigations that never lead to prosecution or conviction. The research raises the issue of the use of law enforcement publicity regarding investigations of potential offenders, often long before possible convictions. The issue is explored by the press releases from the Norwegian body. The apparent shift in strategy and practice at Økokrim might be explained by the devastating evaluation of the national authority some years ago. The evaluation was initiated after the Transocean court scandal where all defendants were acquitted of all charges. Deterrence strategy by investigations implies that Økokrim passes negative consequences on suspects who never have a chance to defend themselves in court. In jurisdictions with criminal justice, a suspect should always have the benefit of the doubt. Conviction should only occur when guilt is proven beyond any reasonable and sensible doubt. Until eventually proven guilty, a suspect is supposed to be considered innocent. This is a basic principle of justice.

Pakistan Journal of Criminology 14(4) p. 1-18

Economic wrongdoing committed by privileged members of society’s upper social and economic elite is known as white-collar crime. The research on the gender gap among white-collar offenders is expanded in this study, where it is proposed that the percentage of female offenders is determined by or affected by the degree of gender equality. Women typically make up a small percentage of those who have been found guilty of white-collar offenses. Low female participation in privileged positions due to gender inequality has been used to explain the gender gap. The global gender gap index calculates the degree of gender inequality. Regarding gender equality in the country, Iran is ranked 143, while Norway is ranked 3 (out of 146 countries), according to the index for 2022. Thus, on the index, Iran and Norway represent two extremes that make a comparison study pertinent. This investigation compares a small sample of convicted offenders in Iran to a larger sample in Norway and finds little evidence to support the idea that the degree of gender equality can account for differences in white-collar crime rates between men and women. Therefore, this study provides support for the focal concern hypothesis rather than the emancipation hypothesis.

Journal of Financial Crime p. 1-9 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/JFC-10-2022-0246

Purpose – The purpose of this study is to explore the extent to which white-collar crime makes sense. Understanding business offending reflects the degree of sensemaking among respondents in the current survey research. Making sense implies a number of factors that influence understandability. An understandable act is not necessarily acceptable or justifiable. At a university in Iran, criminal law and criminology students answered a questionnaire regarding their extent of understanding of business offenders. Design/methodology/approach – The research method is the use of experimental data using a questionnaire in one of the units of the Islamic Azad University in Iran, where 300 students were invited to respond to an online survey. Findings – The respondents found it on average understandable that top executives and other privileged individuals abuse their positions to commit financial crime when they have problems with their personal finances, when the business struggles financially and faces the threat of bankruptcy, and when they offer bribes in corrupt countries to obtain business contracts. The extent of understandability varies with a number of propositions in the convenience theory.

Crime and delinquency p. 1-21 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/00111287221145123

Traditionally, white-collar and corporate crime research has focused on the role of the criminal justice system in prosecuting and punishing offenders and offenses. The frequent lack of prosecution and punishment has been explained by various theoretical perspectives that reflect the legal license to operate. However, the emerging perspective of the social license to operate illustrates punishment at violations that can cause termination of executives, market loss, and other serious harm to individuals and firms. This article presents three case studies where fraud examiners reviewed the legal license when the social license was ignored. There is an interesting avenue here for future white-collar and corporate crime research in distinguishing between punishment from violations of the legal license and punishment from violations of the social license to operate.

Deviant Behavior p. 1-14 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2023.2246626

The private nature of business creates opportunities for financial crimes. Convenience theory suggests that opportunity, accompanied by a willingness and motive, explains financial crimes. Newer technologies have created similar private environments, which allow for criminal behavior. For example, cryptocurrencies offer a new way of generating anonymous financial transactions. This paper explores criminal opportunity using cryptocurrency and convenience theory. Specifically, we test each convenience dimension – opportunity, willingness, and motive – using a sample of adults in the United States. We find all three dimensions explain online financial crimes. Opportunity, measured through any purchase of cryptocurrency is related to an increase in financial cybercrimes. Further, when motive is considered as greed or need, a need is more important than greed. The use of cryptocurrency increases certain opportunities for financial crimes. This may partially be attributed to the crimes themselves (e.g. pump-and-dump cryptocurrency schemes) but also to the general opportunity created through cyberspace.

Springer Nature

Revista Científica do CPJM 2 p. 16-39

Traditionally, research on the fraction of women in white-collar crime has focused on females’ lack of financial motive, organizational opportunity, and personal willingness for deviant behavior. This article applies the opposite perspective of traditional gender research on white-collar crime in terms of special female motive, opportunity, and willingness. Based on the theory of convenience, this article identifies convenience themes that are gender-specific in favor of female offenders. In the motive dimension of convenience theory, there is concern for others and strain causing depression and anxiety (Brands and Mehra, 2019). In the opportunity dimension, there are fewer women than men that face suspicions of misconduct, wrongdoing, and crime. In the willingness dimension, females as followers might justify their actions and neutralize their potential guilt feelings far better than males as leaders in crime by claiming loyalty to their leaders.

Deviant Behavior p. 1-15 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2023.2261066

Introduction Literature review Research method Research results Discussion Conclusion Disclosure statement Additional information References Full Article Figures & data References Citations Metrics Licensing Reprints & Permissions View PDFView EPUB ABSTRACT This article presents a sample of ten American dreamers who demonstrated convenient deviance. The sample is derived from publicly available sources such as autobiographies by dreamers, media coverage, and investigation reports. The sample consists of four dreamers in the USA, two dreamers in Germany, and one dreamer in each of the countries India, Sweden, Norway, and Greece. While not at all claiming that the sample is representative of dreamers on the convenient deviance path, the individual stories provide insights into motives, opportunities, and willingness for deviance. The empirical sample of ten dreamers is analyzed in this article by application of convenience theory. Convenience theory suggests that convenient deviance can occur when there is a financial motive based on possibilities or threats, there is an organizational opportunity to commit and conceal deviance, and there is an individual willingness for deviant behavior. Specifically, this article addresses the research question: What convenience propositions might explain American dreamers’ deviance? Research results indicate the proposition of greed as motive, the proposition of status as opportunity, and the proposition of neutralization as willingness.

Journal of Economic Criminology 2 p. 1-6 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconc.2023.100021

One reason many nations have centralized policing functions is to manage knowledge that can take on and solve the most complex criminal investigations and prosecutions in the country. Somewhat similar to the Serious Fraud Office in the United Kingdom and the Federal Bureau of Investigation in the United States, the National Authority for Investigation and Prosecution of Economic and Environmental Crime (Økorim) is Norway’s central unit for fighting economic and environmental crime. After a scandal hit this national authority, the current research asks to what extent Økokrim is still a serious economic crime office. An empirical study of press releases from the national authority over a one year period, from June 2022 to June 2023, suggests that Økokrim has taken on less serious economic crime cases to close the competence gap between the requirements of new criminal cases and the qualifications among Økokrim employees and leaders. The consequence seems to be that from an estimated conviction rate of 1 out of 11 white-collar offenders in Norway in the past, less than 9 % are now brought to justice. This article contributes to the current state of knowledge regarding offender convenience depending on operations and policy choices of centralized crime agencies.

Intersentia

This book provides the first thorough examination of the concept of lawyer roles in knowledge work, offering a detailed comparative exploration and analysis of the globalized legal services industry in terms of individual and corporate professional function. Knowledge management has long been identified by scholars within the business sphere as a key strategic device in the development of complex organizations and developing markets. However, this essential process has been largely ignored within socio-legal studies and professional practice applications as a specific subject for close scrutiny. Lawyer Roles in Knowledge Work seeks to address this anomaly, with Gottschalk and Hamerton recognizing the strong lineage and correlation that exists between the study of knowledge management and contemporary legal practice. Using an interdisciplinary focus which includes illustrative case-studies, the book explores European, North American, and global perspectives as well as models to identify, position, and reveal the forward-looking lawyer as defender, enabler, and investigator. In doing so it revaluates current strategic legal practice and organisational behaviour within the context of changing patterns of business, the workplace, social rules, systems of governance, decision making, social ordering and control. Whilst this book is principally focused on the three titular roles of defender, enabler, and investigator, it acknowledges and explains that there are other functionary positions frequently occupied by lawyers, such as the role of the bureaucrat who acts for the government and its executive agencies. Lewis and Mulcahy (2021) described lawyers in bureaucracies in terms of their knowledge needs related to law-making processes, regulations, and policy. They found that bureaucrats’ knowledge work involves collaboration and compromise in government circles. Other lawyer roles in knowledge work include prosecutor, judge, and corporate legal officers. However, the three roles of defender, enabler, and investigator developed and scrutinized in this book were chosen on the basis that they all involve the lawyer working for a client where the lawyer receives payment depending on the magnitude of completed work activities, and where the lawyer might become subject to disciplinary action depending on misconduct. In this regard Lawyer Roles in Knowledge Work aims to offer a unique and nuanced comparative treatment of a developmental field within contemporary legal practice and strategic management studies. The book will speak to students of law, business management, criminology, and sociology, along with legal practitioners and professionals within allied fields.

Deviant Behavior p. 1-15 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2023.2271627

This article presents a case study from Norway that supplements previous research in other jurisdictions such as Australia, Canada, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom regarding lack of justice when corporate investigators conduct internal examinations in client organizations. The case is concerned with a university researcher who was investigated after allegations of violating the national working environment act. Investigators applied likelihood of fifty percent rather than the criteria of incident beyond any reasonable doubt. There was no real contradiction offered, and many more deviance from a fair process occurred when compared to the public criminal justice system. The presented maturity model with four stages is applied to illustrate the low level of investigative performance in the case. This research does not in any way claim that the presented case is representative of work by corporate investigators conducting internal examinations in client organizations. Nevertheless, this research is important, as it illustrates the lack of justice that is caused by the absence of regulation of the private investigation industry as performed by law firms, audit firms, consulting firms, and others.

Pakistan Journal of Criminology 14(3) p. 79-99

Convenience exists in the financial motive, the organizational opportunity, and the personal willingness for deviant behavior. These three themes can result in 14 convenience propositions as presented.This article aims to discuss the role of convenience in Iranian mafia and how it affects the perpetration of financially motivated crime. For this purpose, we selected and discuss some of these fourteen propositions that can explain mafia operations in Iran.The media concept of mafia business in Iran is exemplified by the meat mafia, the sugar mafia, the tea mafia, and the steel mafia. The procedure used to collect data in this study is documentation, that is, the guidelines used in the form of notes or citations, the search for legal literature, books and other sources related to the identification of the problems of this study both offline like online.

Elgar Encyclopedia of Crime and Criminal Justice p. 1-8 Doi: https://doi.org/10.4337/9781789902990.white.collar.crime

Sustainable Finance and Financial Crime p. 307-328 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-28752-7_16

This chapter presents a case study of Danske Bank activities in Estonia by application of convenience theory. Reducing financial crime convenience is a matter of financial motives, organizational opportunities, and willingness for deviant behavior. Reduction in crime convenience is thus a matter of reduction in motives, reduction in opportunities, as well as reduction in willingness. Reduction in crime convenience contributes to sustainable finance. The elements of convenience reduction are evident from the structure of convenience theory. First, it is a matter of corporate executive status: disclosure of executive language, removal of powerful people, detection of misleading attribution, disregard of offender humor, and correction of power inequality. Next, it is a matter of access to corporate resources: Restrictions on access to systems, disclosure of entrepreneurialism, review of specialized access, and limits to strategic resources. Third, it is a matter of organizational improvement: transparency to avoid deterioration, replacement of disorganization, detection of crime signals, transparency in accounting, corporate social responsibility, and sharing of audit reports. Fourth, it is a matter of oversight and guardianship: coordination of principal and agent, sensemaking of executive actions, protection of whistleblowers, and corporate principal agent dynamics. Finally, it is a matter of markets and networks: reduction in rule complexity, avoidance of crime networks, combat of criminal market forces, and avoidance of victimization from cartel crime activities.

Journal of Economic Criminology 2 p. 1-8 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconc.2023.100024

The theoretical goal of this article is to examine the case of a recent benefits fraud scandal among Norwegian parliamentarians, who received various payments they were not entitled to, through the lens of convenience theory. The evidence presented and evaluated comes from the report of the Norwegian auditor general’s internal investigation as well as from various media reports. Among 14 convenience propositions, evidence was found for six of them: greed, status, decay, chaos, justification, and neutralization. An important practical implication of this research is that the independent status of parliamentarians has to be addressed by new measures of guardianship, overview, and control against fraud. Generally, the violation of trust by privileged individuals elected by the people represents a threat to democracy.

Journal of International Doctoral Research 10(1) p. 29-53

In previous decades, one or two rich Norwegians moved to Switzerland. Suddenly, in 2022 there were 36 wealthy Norwegians moving to Switzerland. They were all labeled tax refugees and economic emigrants in the media. This article applies the theory of convenience to study the phenomenon of immigration. Based on extensive media coverage as the source of information for this study, some convenience themes seem to dominate. In the motive dimension of convenience theory, goal achievement for business activity is visible in the sample. In the opportunity dimension, Switzerland as a tax haven with financial secrecy is attractive. In the willingness dimension, learning from others is visible in the sample. This article presents important insights into a phenomenon that has not been investigated in traditional migration research.

Routledge

Routledge

Traditionally, control in organizations is concerned with top-down approaches, where executives attempt to direct their employees’ attention, behaviors, and performance to align with the organization’s goals and objectives. This book takes a new approach by turning the problem of control upside down as it focuses on control of executives who find white-collar crime convenient. The bottom-up approach to executive compliance focuses on organizational measures to make white-collar crime less convenient for potential offenders. Rather than focusing on the regulatory formalities and staged procedures of compliance and audits, the book emphasizes the organizational challenges involved in compliance work when trusted corporate officials exhibit deviant behavior, refining, and advancing knowledge in this field by reference to contemporary international case studies and associated original evaluative research. The themes and cases covered are carefully selected to provide the reader with an insight into professional conduct and procedural practice – the organization of corporate compliance success, failure, and corruption – with the theory of convenience placed at the fore. It is the bottom-up approach by application of convenience theory that makes the proposed book unique compared to other books on corporate compliance. This book is a valuable resource for scholars and upper-level students researching and studying in the areas of business administration, organizational behavior, corporate and white-collar crime, as well as business ethics and auditing.

Palgrave Macmillan Doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-45079-2

This book makes a distinctive and innovative contribution to the study of white-collar and corporate crime through detailed examination of the use, affect, and violation of the corporate social license – a concept frequently extended to a license to operate. Whilst discrete aspects of corporate social responsibility have found their way into the discourse on business deviance and crime, no single book to date has provided a detailed exploration of social licence through a criminological lens. Here, using an interdisciplinary focus which includes illustrative case-studies and large-scale original fieldwork, Gottschalk and Hamerton explore European, North American, Asian, and global perspectives to identify, position, and reveal the impact of the social license on contemporary conceptions of white-collar and corporate deviance and crime. Corporate Social License: A Study in Legitimacy, Conformance, and Corruption will be of interest to scholars of criminology, law, business management, and sociology along with professionals within allied fields.

Journal of Financial Crime p. 1-15 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/JFC-02-2023-0033

Purpose – This paper aims to understand the involvement of women in white-collar crime (WCC) also referred to as pink-collar crimes. WCC is present around the globe and has created a word for itself. Design/methodology/approach – The paper is designed by studying the WCC in the area of Iran, Portugal, Norway, India and the USA. Findings – The paper attempts to move beyond the traditional perspectives of emancipation versus focal concern, which argue that less inequality will increase women involvement in WCC versus women socializing into accepting responsibilities for social concerns by caring for others.

Journal of Economic Criminology 3 p. 1-8 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconc.2023.100045

When Russia attacked Ukraine, national states as well as multinational bodies such as the European Union imposed economic sanctions against Russia. Companies in sanctioning countries were expected to terminate their business with companies in the sanctioned country. However, the threat of bankruptcy made some companies chose deviance to circumvent and evasion sanctions. The case study in this paper describes an insurance firm’s attempt to terminate an insurance arrangement to avoid allegations of money laundering. The ownership of a seafood company in Norway had been transferred from Russians to a Norwegian. However, it seemed that the Russians were still the real owners since the Norwegian had paid nothing for the ownership. This paper presents the civil trial in the case and discusses convenience propositions for the Norwegian based on convenience theory in the dimensions of motive, opportunity, and willingness for deviance.

Journal of Economic Criminology 2 p. 1-6 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconc.2023.100037

Half of all finance and insurance firms in Norway report that they are exposed to economic crime, particularly fraud, every year. On the other hand, only eighteen percent in public administration and defense perceive similar exposure to economic crime. However, the estimated fraction of unreported, non-registered economic crime in the country is ninety-four percent. These numbers are some of the results from surveys conducted in Norway in 2005, 2010, and 2023. This article applies the main economic crime categories of fraud, theft, manipulation, and corruption as used by scholars to study the survey results. The corruption category shows the largest gap between perceived exposure and police statistics. Comparison to white-collar crime research indicates higher frequency of theft at the street level and higher frequency of manipulation at the upper echelon. Comparison to future surveys in other countries is encouraged.

Deviant Behavior p. 1-12 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2023.2253354

This article presents survey research in Romania to identify support or lack of support for propositions in convenience theory as they relate to motive, opportunity, and willingness. The research is important, as convenience propositions that might find strong support among respondents indicate areas for reduction in convenience as a measure to prevent and detect white-collar crime. Convenience is a concept not only associated with savings in time and effort but also with avoidance of strain and pain. Respondents express most strongly support for the proposition that persons in top positions have the opportunity to conceal financial crime at work where there is lack of guardianship, oversight and control. An important factor in improving control is reliable whistleblowing that will reduce the convenience of crime by privileged individuals who intend to abuse their positions for personal or organizational gain.

The Shahre Danesh Institute of Law

Walter de Gruyter (De Gruyter)

Traditionally, corporate control is all about top-down approaches to management of employees. Executives attempt to influence employees toward achieving business goals, and they attempt to prevent and detect wrongdoing, misconduct, and crime among employees. However, top-down approaches to corporate control do not work when executives and other privileged individuals in the business themselves commit and conceal their wrongdoing, misconduct, and crime in organizational settings. Then there is a need for a bottom-up approach in corporate control as outlined in this book. Bottom-up control refers to the manner in which organizational members can use different types of control mechanisms – such as whistleblowing, transparency, resource access, or culture – to monitor, measure, and evaluate executives’ avoidance of deviant behaviors and influence them toward achieving the organization’s goals in efficient and effective ways. The newly emerging perspective of a social license to operate forms part of the bottom-up strategy where criminalization becomes social property independent of the criminal justice system. The social license is predominantly centered on social permission for business activity where the media, social movements, and citizen watchdogs exert pressure, demand change, and bring top management to account. This book presents a novel approach to corporate control of white-collar crime based on the theory of convenience. White-collar crime is financial crime committed by privileged individuals who have legitimate access to resources based on the power and trust inherent through their professional positions. Convenience theory proposes that motive, opportunity, and willingness are the three dimensions that underlie white-collar crime in an organizational context. This book contributes to the study of white-collar criminality through a blend of theoretical discussions and practical materials that illuminate and support the use of convenience theory. The book discusses how bottom-up approaches can overcome the difficulty of detecting white-collar crime and overcome the barriers of preventing executive deviance.

Pakistan Journal of Criminology 13(4)

The theory of convenience suggests that financial threats and possibilities, organizational opportunities to commit and conceal wrongdoing, as well as personal willingness for deviant behavior determine the likelihood of white-collar crime. When there is suspicion of white-collar crime, public and private organizations tend to hire fraud examiners from audit firms and law firms to reconstruct past events and sequences of events. This article links findings in fraud examination reports regarding crime convenience to the extent of corruption in the respective countries. Research results suggest that white-collar crime convenience increases as the extent of crime in a nation increases. The empirical research presented in this article is exploratory with a number of shortcomings that need to be addressed in future studies.

Journal of International Doctoral Research 9(1) p. 40-61

Convenience theory is an emerging theoretical perspective to explain the phenomenon of white-collar crime. This article presents a one-sided theoretical study of convenience themes that emerged for white-collar offenders during the Covid-19 pandemic by abuse of governments’ emergency support packages for business enterprises. Special motives, special opportunities, and special willingness for deviant behavior in abuse of financial aid occurred during the pandemic. Stronger motives – both based on possibilities and threats – are discussed. The opportunity was mainly rooted in rule complexity linked to external lack of control and guardianship. The willingness has many convenience themes including rationality, learning, justification, and neutralization. The one-sided approach of whitecollar crime enablers during the pandemic in abuse of public funding needs to be supplemented by discussion of white-collar crime barriers during the pandemic in future research.

Crime and delinquency Doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/00111287221131492

White-collar crimes(WCC) or financial crimes(FC) are the crimes that are linked with the top-level management representatives who are responsible to make the right decisions for the better functioning of the organization, these individuals are highly respectable as they hold a position of high repute. However, when the same individuals either under the pressure of performance or personal issues misuse the power and control vested on them due to the position they hold in the organization, take certain decisions which lead the organization into jeopardy. These individuals not only put the hard-earned money of the investors on stake but also enjoy the best of the facilities on the basis of their position. In the said article the authors have tried to answer two major questions regarding the abuse of position and manipulation of the financial statements at the struggling phase of the firm. The base of the study is convenience theory which was used to understand the concept of convenience theory for which a questionnaire based on 7 Likert scale was used in which responses of 230 MBA students were studied. The results were near to what were expected supporting the fact that individuals are misusing their position to commit WCC, supporting the concept of convenience theory being used in the study.

Deviant Behavior 44(4) p. 591-602 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2022.2071657

This article starts with a brief review of law firm business. Next, crime convenience theory is applied to the case by identifying relevant convenience themes for financial motive, organizational opportunity, and personal willingness. Then, a brief application of crime signal detection theory is presented. In the discussion, governance in the form of restrictions based on convenience theory is discussed. Prevention and detection of wrongdoing is at the core of governance to secure compliance with laws, regulations, rules, and guidelines. The lack of transparency among stakeholders in the case of the law firm is detrimental to governance. The discourse and rituals of transparency, account-giving, and verification are central to governance.

Journal of Financial Crime Doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/JFC-08-2022-0205

Purpose: The purpose of this study is to compare women committing pink-collar and red-collar crimes in Iran. In the current study, the pink-collar crime, studying murder by women as red-collar criminals and the root of “pink-collar crime” is considered the related terms. Design/methodology/approach: Descriptive analytical method is used in this article. Findings: It was previously thought that white-collar crime has no victim, and it is not necessary to imprison the criminal or consider other punishments. There is no recognized solution for such crimes, as opposed to the legislature and the government’s efforts, and therefore, consumers, government, employees, companies and executives cannot realize these crimes or be aware of them. Unfortunately, recognizing red-collar crimes is impossible using the old, outdated set of laws, and new laws are required. The phenomenon of white- and red-collar crime is endless and must always be in the attention of society to prevent its dangerous consequences for the community. Originality/value: This article is original and has been submitted only to this journal and has not been submitted to another journal at the same time.

Palgrave Macmillan

Compliance has long been identified by scholars of white-collar crime as a key strategic control device in the regulation of corporations and complex organisations. Nevertheless, this essential process has been largely ignored within criminology as a specific subject for close scrutiny – Corporate Compliance: Crime, Convenience and Control seeks to address this anomaly. This initiating book applies the theory of convenience to provide criminological insight into the enduring self-regulatory phenomenon of corporate compliance. Convenience theory suggests that compliance is challenged when the corporation has a strong financial motive for illegitimate profits, ample organisational opportunities to commit and conceal wrongdoing, and executive willingness for deviant behaviour. Focusing on white-collar deviance and crime within corporations, the book argues that lack of compliance is recurrently a matter of deviant behaviour by senior executives within organisations who abuse their privileged positions to commission, commit and conceal financial crime.

Springer

This volume looks at the emerging perspective to the social license and white-collar and corporate crime in criminal justice. While most scholarship explains the frequent lack of police involvement, prosecution, and punishment through various theoretical perspectives that reflect the legal license to operate, the social license to operate illustrates punishment of violations that can cause termination of executives, market loss, and other serious harm to individuals and firms. This book presents several case studies where fraud examiners reviewed the legal license, while the social license was ignored, distinguishing between punishment from violations of the legal license and punishment from violations of the social license to operate. This volume is ideal for crime analysts and scholars of corporate and white-collar crime.

Crime and delinquency Doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/00111287221104737

Convenience exists in the financial motive, the organizational opportunity, and the personal willingness for deviant behavior. These three themes can result in 14 convenience propositions as presented in this article. In cases where an offender is detected, the offense can be examined by identifying relevant convenience issues in the structural model of crime convenience. Not all of the 14 issues will be relevant to create a narrative of one specific incident. In cases where prevention of offenses is the issue, then vulnerability review is appropriate for all 14 propositions. For example, domination of greed or extensive differential association can signal strong motivation or strong willingness for wrongdoing, while lack of oversight and guardianship can signal an invitation for wrongdoing.

Routledge

This book examines the role of Chief Executives in white collar crime from a convenience theory perspective. Privileged position status, legitimate resource access, institutional deterioration, lack of control and guardianship, and criminal networks such as cartels are some of the typical factors of opportunity convenience when chief executives commit white-collar crime. By presenting and discussing such factors, this book aims to clarify vulnerabilities in organizational settings when the deviant chief executive takes advantage of their position for criminal means. The book applies convenience theory to explain a variety of cases of corporate crime committed by chief executives. The work will be a valuable resource for academics and researchers in the areas of criminology and criminal justice, law enforcement policy, business management and organizational behavior.

Chinese People's Public Security University Press

Routledge

Investigation reports are written by fraud examiners after completion of internal reviews in client organizations when there was suspicion of financial wrongdoing. Fraud examiners are expected to answer questions regarding what happened, when it happened, how it happened, and why. This book presents a number of case studies of investigation reports by fraud examiners, offering a framework for studying the report as well as insights into convenience of fraud. The case studies, including KPMG and PwC, focus on two important subjects. First, convenience themes are identified for each case. Themes derive from the theory of convenience, where fraud is a result of financial motives, organizational opportunities, and personal willingness for deviant behaviors. Second, review maturity is identified for each case. Review maturity derives from a stages-of-growth model, where the investigation is assigned a level of maturity based on explicit criteria. The book provides useful insights towards approaching fraud examinations to enable better understanding of the rational explanations for corporate fraud. The book is framed from the perspective of private policing, which contextualizes how investigation reports are examined. This book is a valuable resource for scholars and upper-level students researching and studying auditing and investigation work in the corporate and public sectors. Business and management as well as criminal justice scholars and students will learn from the case studies how to frame a white-collar crime incident by application of convenience theory and how to evaluate a completed internal investigation by fraud examiners.

Routledge

Palgrave Macmillan

Journal of International Doctoral Research 8(1) p. 178-204

Commitment to goals can escalate to such an extent that it encourages deviant behaviour even after detection of a crime. A case study illustrates how detection of environmental crime in one country led to environmental crime in another country. The Probo Koala tanker ship was to deliver another shipment of coker gasoline waste to the Ivory Coast, and her sister ship, Probo Emu, both owned by Trafigura, was preparing for the same journey. Trouble started when the illegal waste shipment was detected. Trafigura management quickly found an alternative destination for the waste, where an explosion harming local citizens occurred. The case of redirecting the tanker ship to Norway is studied as a dark project by application of convenience theory, which suggests that offenders have financial motives, organizational opportunities, as well as willingness for deviant behavior caused by escalating commitment to illegal behavior to reach goals such as getting rid of the hazardous waste.

Deviant Behavior Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2021.1919037

Convenience theory is a novel, integrated theory aimed at explaining criminal behavior, with a particular focus on white-collar crime. The current study represents a preliminary test of this theory through a survey of student perceptions of financial crimes committed by business leaders and executives. Four dimensions of the theory, including justifications, motivations, opportunities, and willingness to commit crime, are examined using an international sample of students from two different universities. Results reveal significant differences between students’ agreement with justifications for white-collar crime. Those more likely to agree with crime justifications were also more likely to agree with motivations for and willingness to engage in executive leader crimes associated with a business. Thus, the current study finds support for convenience theory as a possible explanation for white-collar criminality among those expected to be in future positions which make these crimes possible. Findings also implicate motivation and willingness, two important dimensions in convenience theory, as key factors which are likely to influence the decision-making process to engage in white-collar crime.

Walter de Gruyter (De Gruyter)

As documented in a number of case studies (from Telia Telecom in Sweden to Wirecard in Germany) in this book, recidivism seems to be of a substantial magnitude in corporate crime. Corporations tend to repeat white-collar offenses such as financial crime and environmental crime in various forms as long as they find it convenient. A minor fine from time to time and dismissal of some executives as scapegoats do not prevent corporations from committing and concealing new offenses as long as there is a convenient financial motive, a convenient organizational opportunity, and a convenient willingness for deviant behavior. Businesses and their executives tend to be recidivists who get away with light punishment in most jurisdictions. The relevant audiences for this book include law students, business students, sociology students, and criminology students. Fraud examiners, defense attorneys, compliance officers, police investigators, as well as prosecutors can find the structural model of convenience to be an ideal template in preparing corporate crime case narratives.

Palgrave Macmillan

Routledge

Palgrave Macmillan

Edward Elgar Publishing

British Journal of Criminology 60(4) p. 949-969 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azaa001

We extend research on how corporations respond to scandals by examining the evolution of the accounts that are developed by corporate agents after a scandal becomes public. Guided by the theory of accounts and a recently developed perspective on crisis management, we examine how the accounts developed by 12 corporations caught up in highly publicized scandals changed from the time of initial exposure to the issuance of an investigative report. Our analysis shows that denial of wrongdoing in several cases is replaced by admission of wrongdoing and scapegoating, while obfuscation of wrongdoing is replaced by denial or acceptance of responsibility and scapegoating. We conclude with a discussion of the broader managerial and social implications of our analysis and how it furthers our understanding of the ability of corporations to weather serious scandals.

Deviant Behavior 45(5) p. 1-11 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2020.1771129

The theory of convenience suggests that characteristics of white-collar offenders include motive, opportunity, and willingness for deviant behavior. This article discusses the case of offenders developing and supporting the software platform Popcorn Time. The motive seems to be sensation seeking with a deviant identity. The opportunity seems to be unknown and anonymous identity of offenders based on the lack of oversight and guardianship on the Internet. The willingness seems to be lack of self-control as well as disclaim of responsibility for violations of intellectual property rights. A structural model of convenience theory is applied to the case study.

International Journal of Business Continuity and Risk Management (IJBCRM) 10(2/3) p. 258-265 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1504/IJBCRM.2020.108517

In this article, we study business school students' action orientation and follower syndrome when they suspect the boss at work of white-collar crime. Business school students are relevant for this research, as they will occupy positions in the future where they can commit financial crime, prevent crime, or become victims of such crime. Our student responses are particularly interesting, since the students actively had elected a class on financial crime rather than more traditional business school classes. Students responded that they would inform a colleague of their suspicion, and they would not raise their suspicion with the boss. Students do not suffer from the follower syndrome in their self-reported scores in the questionnaire. We found no statistical relationship between the extent of the follower syndrome and the extent of action orientation among students.

Criminal justice studies 33(4) p. 413-424 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/1478601X.2020.1723084

The theory of convenience is an emerging approach to explain the occurrence of white-collar crime. Convenience theory suggests that there is a financial motive enabling the offender to exploit possibilities and avoid threats, an organizational opportunity to commit and conceal crime, and a personal willingness for deviant behavior. This article tests the theory by a case study of a logistics manager who entered into corrupt relationships with friends who were suppliers. Among the many themes included in the structural model of convenience theory, the case study illustrates occupational rather than corporate crime that benefitted the offender personally. The motive was greed, while the opportunity was caused by status and lack of oversight and guardianship. His willingness was based on his choice of private relationships where he could justify his actions and neutralize feelings of guilt.

The Routledge Companion to Managing Digital Outsourcing p. 105-117 Doi: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351037785

Sourcing decisions have been recognized for their potential to significantly impact a company’s business and value creation. Based on the stages-of-growth model for outsourcing, offshoring and backsourcing, a framework to analyze and predict organizational change is suggested. Using the costs, resources and partnership parameters of the framework, benchmarks applicable to each stage are applied in two business examples. The lessons learned from the experiences of these two examples are useful in analyzing stages, dominant problems at each stage, evolutionary path and the economies of outsourcing. The findings indicate that companies face different issues, expectations and benefits, depending on their maturity.

Edward Elgar Publishing

Deviant Behavior p. 1-11 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2020.1717840

The theory of convenience suggests that white-collar offenders find it convenient to use illegitimate gain to explore possibilities and avoid threats. Furthermore, there is convenient access to resources to commit and financial crime, and offenders can conveniently justify crime and neutralize guilt feelings. This article extends the concept of convenience into the concept of inconvenience when white-collar offenders face detection, investigation, conviction, and incarceration. The extent of inconvenience is dependent on a number of issues such as public opinion about seriousness of wrongdoing, fraud examinations versus police investigations, symbolic defense by attorneys, and the special sensitivity hypothesis versus the special resilience hypothesis. While facing the criminal justice system is never convenient for the offender, the extent of inconvenience might limit itself and partly find compensation by a number of circumstances on the way from crime detection to release from prison.

Deviant Behavior p. 1-9 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2020.1756428

We find support for the idea that gender affects target selection when committing white-collar crime. Based on the theory of convenience, we argue that male and female offenders vary in their perceptions of convenience when considering alternative categories of crime and alternative categories of victims. We obtained data from Utah’s White Collar Crime Offender Registry. Individuals in the state of Utah who are convicted of a second-degree white-collar crime felony or higher are required to register. The categories of crime included from statute HB 378 are securities fraud, theft by deception, unlawful dealing of property by iduciary, fraudulent insurance, mortgage fraud, communications fraud, and money laundering.

Routledge

Deviant Behavior p. 1-17 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2020.1778961

This paper presents the integrated theory of convenience with its dimensions and structural model. Convenience statements derive from the structural model. The research suggests that offenders will find crime more convenient than non-offenders will. One hundred and eleven business students were either potential offenders or non-offenders based on their responses in survey research. Business students who found it understandable that top executives and others in privileged positions commit white-collar crime are likely offenders, while students who did not find it understandable are likely non-offenders. The empirical test illustrates that assumed offenders find more motive convenience, opportunity convenience, as well as behavioral convenience by crime when compared to assumed non-offenders.

Routledge

Deviant Behavior p. 1-15 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2020.1794270

Traditionally, research on the gender fraction of women in white-collar crime has focused on female lack of financial motive, organizational opportunity, and personal willingness for deviant behavior. This article applies the opposite perspective of traditional gender research on white-collar crime in terms of special female motive, opportunity, and willingness. This article challenges prior research regarding female involvement in white-collar crime. Based on the theory of convenience, this article identifies convenience themes that are gender-specific in favor of pink-collar offenders. In the motive dimension of convenience theory, we find concern for others and strain causing depression and anxiety. In the opportunity dimension, we find that women have the advantage of facing suspicion of misconduct, wrongdoing, and crime to a far lesser extent compared to men. In the willingness dimension, we find that women as followers can justify their actions and neutralize their potential guilt feelings far better than men in the role of leaders in crime can neutralize what they have done.

Deviant Behavior Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2020.1816147

The objective of this article is to present a study of two observers turning into whistleblowers through stages of crime signal detection, registration, interpretation, reception, and knowledge. The study applies signal detection theory emphasizing signal alertness, signal reflection, pattern recognition, and personal knowledge. The research method applied is personal interviews with the whistleblowers who noticed deviant behavior, one of which blew the whistle on corruption that later led to the incarceration of several corporate executives. Results indicate that the whistleblowers became more certain of their information as they could discuss their observations with others. An important human factor in whistleblowing is thus the ability to discuss initial observations with people that one can trust, which can lead to documented allegations against suspected individuals. The case studies illustrate experience from troublesome whistleblowing on top executives, where the second whistleblower was less successful.

Deviant Behavior p. 1-12 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2019.1698109

System dynamics modeling enables the study of cause-and-effect relationships as well as causal feedback loops. Based on a structural model of white-collar convenience, this article suggests a dynamic model of white-collar convenience as well as a dynamic model of the agency perspective in convenience theory. This article argues that perceived and preferred convenience changes dynamically over time. The offender’s financial motive can become stronger or weaker over time. Perceived organizational opportunity can become larger or smaller over time. The offender’s personal willingness for deviant behavior can become higher or lower over time. In addition, motive, opportunity, and willingness can dynamically influence each other.

Deviant Behavior p. 1-9 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2019.1658846

Some members of the upper echelon in society violate laws whenever they feel necessary. They have access to resources to commit and conceal financial crime while they deny the guilty mind. Autobiographies by convicted white-collar offenders are an interesting source of information to understand motives, opportunities, and willingness for deviant behaviors. This research applies the theory of convenience to study the autobiography of a convicted chairman of the board in Norway. While claiming corporate crime for the benefit of the business, he actually carried out occupational crime to benefit himself. As an entrepreneur, he felt entitled to do whatever he considered necessary. He suffered from narcissistic identification, where there is little difference between personal money and company money.

International Journal of Business Continuity and Risk Management (IJBCRM) 9(4) p. 283-297 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1504/IJBCRM.2019.102594

In this article, we identify certain aspects of family firms that can cause specific personal motives, organisational opportunities and deviant behaviours. Based on the theory of convenience, we identify organisational opportunities for family members to defraud their own firm. We also identify personal willingness for non-family members to defraud the family firm where they work. We do not argue that white-collar crime is more or less frequent in family firms compared to other kinds of firms. There are several solutions to this problem. Family members should not have voting rights and privileges that cause actions without controls. Non-family members expect firms to pay them fairly and to stimulate them to identify with the business.

Deviant Behavior 41(3) p. 269-277 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2018.1564365

Transnational Crime: European and Chinese Perspectives Doi: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351026826-6

Deviant Behavior 40(11) p. 1421-1427 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2018.1559640

There is a growing business for global auditing firms and local law firms as well as independent detectives to conduct forensic investigations at client organizations when there is suspicion of white-collar misconduct and crime. Client organizations normally do not disclose investigation reports. An investigation report concerned with inappropriate accounting practices at Fuji Xerox in New Zealand is publicly available. This article presents an evaluation of the investigation. Specifically, this article focuses on the mandate, where examiners were asked to find causes of misconduct. Examiners present eight reasons for inappropriate accounting practices. However, as discussed in this evaluation, the report of investigation presents little or no evidence for most of the causes.

International Criminal Justice Review 29(1) p. 48-58 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/1057567717739337

International Journal of procurement management 12(6) p. 621-631 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1504/IJPM.2019.102937

We address the following research question in this article: how can convenience theory in terms of motive, opportunity, and willingness explain deviant behaviour in the case of public procurement of healthcare services in a Norwegian municipality? This research is important, as it can identify motives at the individual and organisational level, opportunities at the organisational and societal level, and willingness at the individual level, even when there is not necessarily corruption involved. The application of convenience theory is by no means an excuse for violations of laws and regulations. Rather, this article demonstrates where prevention of misconduct and crime needs attention. It is particularly at the organisational level, where opportunity structures tend to enable commitment and concealment of illegitimate financial transactions. When auditing and other forms of control are de facto absent, where the blame game occurs, and where it is impossible to trace events because documents and e-mails have disappeared, then misconduct and crime become convenient options.

Deviant Behavior p. 1-17 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2019.1705679

The theory of convenience suggests that the likelihood of white-collar offenses is dependent on financial motives, organizational opportunities, and personal willingness to commit and conceal financial crime in an occupational setting. The convenience triangle suggests that motives, opportunities, and willingness can reinforce each other to commit and conceal the crime. While developing research hypotheses both for the extent of criminogenity and for interactions in the triangle, this research has failed in identifying empirical sources to test suggested hypotheses. Instead, we derive and interpret data from 408 convicted white-collar offenders into intentions to commit financial crime. Given this transformation of data from court documents and media reports, we find support for all three hypotheses regarding motive, opportunity, and willingness as predictors of white-collar crime intentions

Research Handbook on Transnational Crime p. 344-355 Doi: https://doi.org/10.4337/9781784719449.00031

Policing cybercrime faces the challenge of determining the authenticity of messages by using judgment, intuition and deductive reasoning. A cybercrime investigation can be seen as composed of a number of discrete yet linked inquiry actions, including active undercover participation, which are directed towards the production of information about how and why crime occurred. Police investigators are concerned with the gathering of evidence leading to the arrest of offenders, as well as the collection and presentation of evidence and testimony for the purpose of obtaining a conviction. Prosecuting cybercrime involves several special considerations: jurisdiction, venue, statute of limitations, and juveniles. In terms of jurisdiction, several courts in the United States have indicated a willingness to assume that a crime took place in or affecting interstate business as long as there is evidence that the defendant used the Internet in connection with the offence.

Pakistan Journal of Criminology 11(1) p. 1-15

After an oilspill in the Gulf, British Petroleum had to compensate victims of the accident. The total compensation was $11 billion. As suggested by the theory of convenience, a financial motive, an organizational opportunity and a personal willingness can explain deviant behavior by members of the elite in society to gain from the compensation program. In the case of the BP Deepwater Horizon settlements, attorneys were both presenting claims on behalf of victims as well as approving claims on behalf of petroleum company BP. It was a profitable assignment for attorneys, and some attorneys made it even more profitable for themselves by kickbacks and by both applying for and approving compensations. As illustrated in this case study, a report of investigation can serve asan empirical basis for the study of convenience theory.

Universal-Publishers

Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling 16(1) p. 59-72 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/jip.1520

Fraud examiners from global auditing firms and local law firms are in the business of private policing by conducting internal investigations in private and public organisations when there is suspicion of financial crime. The business is often characterised by secrecy, and reports of investigations are often difficult or impossible to disclose. Since 2012, we have successfully retrieved 63 fraud examination reports in Scandinavia. Based on these reports, this article presents a statistical analysis of fraud examination performance. Performance was measured in terms of the extent of successful reconstruction of past events and the extent of justification of conclusions from the examinations. We identified three statistically significant determinants of fraud examination performance: the seriousness of the consequences, the relative seriousness of the consequences and the conclusions, and the seriousness of the conclusions

Deviant Behavior 41(11) p. 1431-1439 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2019.1624101

Crime intentions are an important area of research in criminology. Yet substitutes for real intentions have to be applied since respondents will be reluctant to tell truthfully of their tendency to commit a crime. In this article, we present determinants of white-collar crime based on the theory of convenience. Convenience theory suggests that the extent of individual convenience orientation determines to what extent a person of respectability and high social status in the course of his or her occupation will make a decision to violate the law whenever alternative decisions are less convenient. A more stressful and greedy financial motive, an improved organizational opportunity to commit and conceal crime, and a stronger personal willingness for deviant behavior are assumed to influence the extent of white-collar crime intention. Based on a survey of business school students, we find support for suggested causal relationships in the theory of convenience. Business school students are relevant for this research, as they will occupy positions in the future where they can commit financial crime, prevent crime, or become victims of such crime.

Journal of Gender Studies 28(6) p. 720-729 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/09589236.2019.1617115

We know that half of the population in Norway is female, and we know that females represent 6% of the white-collar crime prison population. In the stage model overview, we derive percentages from the literature into the gender model to explain stepwise reduction from 50% to 6%. In our empirical research, we asked two groups of business school students to come up with their own estimates for the stages in the model for female criminals. While estimates from executive students resulted in 3% women in prison, bachelor students’ estimates resulted in 10% women in prison. The most obvious discrepancy between the research literature and our two survey groups is related to relative convictions. Based on the literature, we suggested that female defendants receive more serious convictions because they may perceive and feel more guilt for a crime, for example in terms of regret, shame and depression. Thus women may have a tendency to confess more easily. Both executive students and bachelor students disagree with this estimate of 140%, as they suggest 62% and 69% respectively. One reason for their suggestion of less serious convictions for female white-collar criminals – sometimes labelled pink-collar criminals – might be that family situation and other elements are taken into account before a verdict is passed on a woman. Another substantial discrepancy is related to detection risk. The literature suggests a low detection risk for women, but may be not as low as we estimated at 30%. Both executive and bachelor students believe that the gender difference in detection likelihood is not that formidable, as they suggest 75% and 65% respectively.

Edward Elgar Publishing

Pakistan Journal of Criminology 11(2) p. 1-14

It is often argued that the guilty mind seems more absent among whitecollar criminals than street criminals. This article presents self-portraits of six White-collar criminals in their autobiographies from Germany, Norway, and the United States. We apply the theory of convenience to find a variety of financial motives, organizational opportunities, and reasons for personal willingness to commit and conceal financial crime benefitting the organizations or themselves. We use a scale from offender to victim, where some convicts present themselves as offenders, while most portrait themselves as victims of crime for which they were convicted to incarceration. Autobiographies are a unique source of information for research to study reasons for deviant behaviors. Unfortunately, some very few white-collar criminals write books about themselves while in prison or afterwards.

International Criminal Justice Review p. 1-12 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/1057567718814286

Deviant Behavior p. 1-9 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2017.1422456

The intent of this article is to study a case of criminal entrepreneurship, which reflects the key attributes of convenience theory in order to test that theory. The intent is also to show that the theory of convenience can be extended beyond white-collar crime to include criminal entrepreneurship. The theory of convenience is introduced in this article to explain why criminal entrepreneurship can be an attractive avenue for some people. Convenience theory suggests that a strong desire for financial gain to satisfy greed and solve problems, an attractive organizational opportunity to commit and conceal crime, as well as a personal willingness for deviant behavior can make criminal entrepreneurship attractive. The case of a Norwegian hashish baron illustrates convenience theory by the person’s ability to stay in the illegal drug business for two decades as a white-collar criminal.

International Journal of Police Science and Management 20(2) p. 109-115 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/1461355718763453

Whereas the criminal justice system is designed to determine whether a police officer as an offender is guilty or innocent, the principal–agent model of policing can provide insights into police officer behavior in law enforcement. Agency theory suggests that the chief as a principal and the field officer as an agent may have different preferences, varying knowledge, and opposite risk willingness when it comes to policing. For example, goals may justify means. In this article, the case of a convicted police officer in Norway is discussed based on principal–agent theory.

International Journal of Management, Knowledge and Learning 7(2) p. 165-187

The purpose of this article is to reflect on the difference between facts and knowledge, as we suggest that knowledge is facts combined with interpreta-tion, context, and reflection. The distinction is important when investigators search for causality. The reason for misconduct in organizations, and thus whom to blame, is dependent on a thorough interpretation and reflection on facts studied in the proper context. This article presents a sample of seven-teen investigation reports by fraud examiners to illustrate the difference be-tween facts and knowledge. When facts remain facts, then the blame game can easily occur. This article first presents the theory of convenience to ex-plain financial misconduct in organizations, and the blame game hypothesis, before we introduce the sample. The purpose of this article is not to criti- cize generally the work that fraud examiners do in private internal investiga-tions for their clients. Rather it intends to reflect upon the difference between facts and knowledge when it comes to reasons for deviance in organizations. Causality is difficult to establish, and it seems tempting to some fraud exam-iners to enter into the blame game to make sure that they draw conclusions from investigations that clients have paid for.

Routledge Handbook of Social, Economic, and Criminal Justice p. 339-347 Doi: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351002707-30

Pakistan Journal of Criminology 10(2) p. 1-14

Pakistan Journal of Criminology 10(1) p. 1-15 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlcj.2018.10.001

There is a research debate whether or not religious people demonstrate less delinquent behavior in terms of white-collar crime. This article focuses on those members of religious institutions who become offenders, and the article attempts to explain their behavior by the theory of convenience. Convenience theory suggests that the extent of white-collar crime is determined by financial motive, organizational opportunity, and personal willingness. As described in this article, religiosity may influence motive, opportunity, as well as willingness. The motive can be a greater good, the opportunity can be the lack of control because of trust, and the willingness can be the availability of forgiveness.

Fraud and Corruption: Major Types, Prevention, and Control p. 43-60 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-92333-8_3

Deviant Behavior 39(11) p. 1419-1426 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2018.1479918

The theory of convenience suggests that white-collar crime is committed in situations where alternative legitimate actions to avoid problems are more painful and stressful. The extent to which individuals in privileged positions choose to break the law in difficult situations is dependent on their convenience orientation. For example, people with a strong convenience orientation can have a tendency to believe that bankruptcy might be avoided through tax evasion and bank fraud. However, the empirical study in this article provides limited support for the suggestion that convenience orientation has a direct influence on the propensity to crime in terms of criminogenity. Rather, there can be several statistically significant effects from convenience that are indirectly related to criminogenity. The most significant effect is that more conveniently oriented respondents believe that financial crime can solve problems and contribute to exploit possibilities.

The Routledge Companion to Risk, Crisis and Security in Business p. 144-156 Doi: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315629520-10

International Journal of Police Science and Management 20(2) p. 116-123 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/1461355718763455

Policing white-collar crime continues to be a critical issue for law enforcement all over the world. Organizational dynamics is an interesting perspective on white-collar crime. Organizational dynamics can cause a downward spiral, leading to misconduct and crime. During the downward spiral, the tendency to commit white-collar crime increases. It becomes more convenient to commit crime in comparison with alternative actions when crises or opportunities emerge. Convenience theory suggests that white-collar crime can be an attractive option for executives and others in the elite. In this article, negative organizational dynamics is explained by institutional theory, social disorganization theory, slippery slope theory, neutralization theory, and differential association theory.

Journal of International Doctoral Research 7(1) p. 79-99

Fraud examiners from global accounting firms and local law firms are hired by private and public organizations to investigate suspicion of financial crime committed by white-collar offenders. Reports of the investigations are the result of work that provides insight into both fraudulent behavior as well as examination performance. Unfortunately, most reports are kept confidential. In this article, a publicly available report is reviewed. Evidence of convenience is found in motive, opportunity and willingness with regard to deviant behavior in organizational contexts. Furthermore, investigation strategies, investigation processes and investigation result are reviewed. A later court verdict is presented, which puts the fraud examination in perspective.

Criminal justice studies p. 1-11 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/1478601X.2018.1534104

The theory of convenience suggests that the extent of white-collar crime is dependent on financial motive, organizational opportunity, and willingness for deviant behavior. Organizational opportunity is at the core of convenience theory, where privileged and powerful offenders have legitimate access to resources in their professions to commit and conceal financial crime. This article introduces a dynamic perspective of organizational opportunity where a white-collar offender can cause opportunity expansion over time. Based on agency theory, social disorganization theory, and blame game theory, a case study is presented. The case study is concerned with a chief financial officer (CFO) who applied several opportunity expansion techniques before he conveniently was able to commit and conceal embezzlement in the business where he was employed.

International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice 55 p. 80-87 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlcj.2018.10.001

The purpose of this article is to illustrate the potential relationships between motives, opportunities, and willingness to commit financial crime by white-collar offenders. We apply the theory of convenience to study six cases that link three constructs concerned with white-collar crime. For example, a strong motive for illegal profit or a strong willingness to commit financial crime can lead to opportunity expansion in an organizational context. The theory of convenience suggests that financial crime is a convenient option for white-collar offenders when there is an economical motive, an organizational opportunity, and a personal willingness. Convenience is defined as taking the handiest or easiest way to achieve a goal. Convenience orientation is conceptualized as the value that individuals place on actions with inherent characteristics of saving time and effort as well as avoiding pain, suffering, and uncertainty. The theory of convenience has three dimensions: (1) a desire for financial gain based on threats and possibilities, (2) an organizational opportunity to commit and conceal financial crime, and (3) a personal willingness for deviant behavior

Routledge

The Routledge Companion to Risk, Crisis and Security in Business p. 157-169 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-68916-6_6

Palgrave Pivot

Cambridge Scholars Publishing

Fraud and Corruption: Major Types, Prevention, and Control p. 213-235 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-92333-8_11

Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling 15(2) p. 99-108 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/jip.1493

Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice 13(4) p. 386-396 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/police/pax052

International Journal of Entrepreneurial Knowledge 5(2) p. 47-55 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1515/ijek-2017-0010

White-collar crime can be a convenient alternative for privileged individuals who want to enrich themselves. Their occupational positions enable them to commit and conceal offenses among legal activities. This is especially the case, when the offender has sole responsibility for entrepreneurial tasks that involve substantial amounts of money, as illustrated by the four executives presented in this article. One simple learning point from this article is that nobody – including chair persons, chief executives, and presidents – should ever have sole responsibility for tasks involving money on behalf of the organization.

Public Corruption: Regional and National Perspectives on Procurement Fraud p. 35-46

International Journal of Police Science and Management p. 1-9 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/1461355717730835

The business of fraud examiners in private internal investigations is important to many auditing firms and law firms. They are hired by public and private organizations when there are suspicions of misconduct and financial crime. Suspicions are sometimes disclosed by whistleblowers who attempt to tell what they perceive as illegal, immoral or illegitimate practices. This article presents a case from the Norwegian police, where whistleblowers expressed concerns about overtime, use of private cars, and procurement of equipment for personal use. The main whistleblower was also the ombudsman in the organization, where he repeated his accusations and allegations so frequently that he ended up being the main subject in the private internal investigation. This study finds partly support for the blame game hypothesis.

Pakistan Journal of Criminology 9(1) p. 1-14 Doi: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429343087

European Journal of Policing Studies 5(2) p. 47-60

International Journal of Police Science and Management 19(4) p. 285-293 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/1461355717733139

The purpose of private internal investigations by fraud examiners is to reconstruct the past by identifying past events and sequences of events. In this article, work by fraud examiners can be studied in terms of maturity, where we introduce a five-stage model for investigation maturity: chaos, mess, disclosure, clarification, and investment. Based on student term papers in a financial crime class, a sample of six investigation reports are allocated to levels in the maturity model. The average score for investigation reports is level 3 disclosure, where the investigation is problem-oriented and often limited by the mandate. Based on the low average score, this article discusses privatization of law enforcement, secrecy of investigation reports, lack of disclosure to the police, competence of private investigators, and limits by investigation mandate.

CRC Press

Edward Elgar Publishing

Deviant Behavior 39(5) p. 617-631 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2017.1286180

Deviant Behavior 39(6) p. 747-757 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2017.1305203

Deviant Behavior 39(12) p. 1600-1614 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2017.1410623

Convenience theory suggests that members of the elite in society commit financial crime in their professional roles when alternative actions require too much effort. Convenience is a relative concept where white-collar crime is chosen over legitimate actions when there is a strong economical motive, ample organizational opportunities, and acceptance of deviant behavior. To study convenience theory, four investigations are presented in this article: statistical sample of white-collar criminals, autobiographies by white-collar criminals, internal investigations of white-collar crime, and student elicitation on white-collar crime. The strongest relationship within convenience theory seems to be the effect from willingness to commit crime based on deviant behavior on organizational opportunity to commit white-collar crime.

International Journal of Criminal Justice Sciences 12(2) p. 224-236 Doi: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1034666

Expert elicitation is a research method designed to make estimations in areas where we have no knowledge, only indicators and experiences. By systematic interviews of experts, we tried to estimate the magnitude of white-collar crime in Norway. On our way to a final answer, we were faced with a number of obstacles in our research design. This article reports from our research journey by communicating our learning from methodological challenges when applying expert elicitation to estimate the size of an iceberg based on knowledge about the tip of the iceberg. In particular, participation refusals and response confusions are discussed. This article presents results from a study where we engaged an expert panel to estimate a number of parameters that can determine the total amount of money lost yearly because of white-collar crime.

International Journal of Police Science and Management 19(2) p. 120-126 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/1461355717711453

Policing religious organizations presents challenging situations. When there is suspicion of financial crime by white-collar criminals, secrecy and trust represent obstacles to law enforcement. This article discusses the lack of detection and neutralization techniques often applied in religious organizations. There may be too much trust, too much freedom, too much individual authority, too little scepticism, too much loyalty and too little control of the financial side in religious organizations. There may be no empirical evidence for the proposition that religion has a deterrent effect on crime, although sociologists and criminologists have long recognized potential links between religious belief and delinquent behaviour.

International Journal of Business Continuity and Risk Management (IJBCRM) 7(2) p. 113-126 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1504/IJBCRM.2017.086068

Public Corruption: Regional and National Perspectives on Procurement Fraud p. 27-34 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1201/9781315277301-3

Palgrave Macmillan

Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management 40(3) p. 628-640 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-04-2016-0053

Fraud examiners in white-collar crime investigations represent private policing of financial crime. Examiners in crime investigations reconstruct the past to create an account of who did what to make it happen or let it happen. This article addresses the following research question: What is the legitimacy of private policing by fraud examiners? A number of critical issues based on institutional theory and social psychology issues are discussed, that question the legitimacy of private policing of financial crime.

Journal of International Doctoral Research 6(1) p. 6-28

Characteristics and experiences of whistleblowers are an important field of research for work and organizational psychology. Detection and prevention of misconduct and crime is dependent on people internally who are not afraid to speak up and tell about their observations. Two key employees in the municipality of Grimstad in Norway reported separately about critical financial incidents in procurement of health services. They were ignored by the perceived power elite in the municipality. At the time of writing this research article, both whistleblowers are on sick leave. This article presents two whistleblowers who – despite perceived retaliation and reprisals - are willing to do it again. They simply define it as part of their job.

Pakistan Journal of Criminology 9(3) p. 40-55

Deviant Behavior 40(1) p. 110-121 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2017.1411045

Convenience theory attempts to integrate various theoretical explanations for the occurrence of white-collar crime. Convenience theory suggests that organizational opportunity to commit and conceal financial crime is at the core of deviant behavior to avoid threats and exploit possibilities. This article presents an empirical test of convenience theory by content analysis of investigation reports by fraud examiners. Empirical evidence suggests that convenience orientation was indeed present among suspected offenders.

RISK GOVERNANCE AND CONTROL: FINANCIAL MARKETS & INSTITUTIONS 7(2) p. 28-37 Doi: https://doi.org/10.22495/rgcv7i2art3

White-collar offenders have access to resources that make financial crime convenient. In the rare case of crime suspicion, resources are available in terms of professional attorney work, control over internal investigations, and public relations support. Hiring private investigators at an early stage of potential crime disclosure enables the organization to control the investigation mandate and influence the investigation process and the investigation output. Getting an early start on reconstruction of the past in terms of a fraud examination makes it possible for the suspect and the organization to influence what facts are relevant and how facts might be assessed in terms of possible violations of the penal code. Convenience aspects of private investigations are discussed in this article in terms of five internal investigations, two in the United States (General Motors and Lehman Brothers) and three in Norway (Telenor VimpelCom, DNB Bank, and Norwegian Football Association). The aim of this research is to contribute insights into convenience associated with internal private investigations.

CRC Press

International Journal of Police Science and Management 18(3) p. 173-183 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/1461355716647744

Fraud examiners in white-collar crime investigations represent private policing of financial crime. Examiners in crime investigations reconstruct the past to create an account of who did what to make it happen or let it happen. This article addresses the following research question: What is the contribution from fraud examiners in private investigative policing of white-collar crime? Contributions are considered benefits from an investigation. Benefits should exceed costs to make private policing a profitable investment. Based on analysis of five U.S. cases and eight Norwegian cases, private policing does not seem profitable.

International Journal of Criminal Justice Sciences 11(1) p. 30-44

Cogent Social Sciences 2 p. 1-14 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2016.1254839

This article provides insight on private investigations in the corporate sector using the case study of Scandinavian bank Nordea in tax havens based on leakage of Panama papers in 2016. The article shows insight on how the private sector approaches such cases, which is rare in the broader literature. Organizations that may be subject to some form of fraud or other white-collar crime call in investigators to examine any concerns that they may have and make a report as to whether or not there is evidence to substantiate such concerns. Whilst the value of some internal investigations may be compromised by a failure to apportion blame, and a lack of integrity and objectivity, this is not always the case. Given potential limits to private investigations, it is important that decision-making is based on other sources as well when it comes to conclusions about past negative events in terms of misconduct and potential crime. As discussed in this article, the limitations around private investigations have affected their ability to investigate the allegations leveled by bank Nordea. Keywordsfraud examinationprivate investigationblame gameresource-based theoryconvenience theory

Palgrave Pivot

Deviant Behavior 38(5) p. 605-619 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2016.1197585

This article is concerned with white-collar criminals and considers the role of convenience in explaining crime occurrence. The article puts forward convenience as a theoretical concept that underlies existing theories and research on white-collar crime. Convenience seems present in all three dimensions of crime: economic dimension, organizational dimension, and behavioral dimension. Convenience in white-collar crime implies savings in time and effort by privileged and trusted individuals to solve a problem, where alternatives seem less attractive, and future threats of detection and punishment are minimal. The proposed theory of convenience in white-collar crime emerges as an integrated explanation in need of more theoretical work as well as empirical study.

Journal of Information & Knowledge Management 15(4) Doi: https://doi.org/10.1142/S021964921650043X

The activity of private investigations by fraud examiners is a business of lawyers, auditors and other professionals who investigate suspicions of financial crime by white-collar criminals. Private investigations represent an interesting and unique field of knowledge management. In this paper, a number of private internal investigation reports or cases are evaluated in terms of their knowledge management approaches. The core message from all cases evaluated is that a contingent knowledge management approach is needed in internal investigations. The situation should determine what kind of knowledge to apply in a specific investigative challenge. Legal knowledge seems to dominate many investigations, where forensic accounting knowledge and management consulting knowledge might have been more appropriate

International Journal of procurement management 9(4) p. 427-443 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1504/IJPM.2016.077703

Deviant Behavior 38(11) p. 1267-1278 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2016.1248713

The maturity of street gangs varies among groups as well as among countries where gangs are present. In this article, a four stage model for maturity is introduced to help define the threat represented by outlaw groups. Maturity models can serve several important purposes. First, a contingent approach to law enforcement implies that the police and other government agencies can apply appropriate measures. Second, law enforcement can distinguish approaches for fighting non-mature gangs versus mature gangs. Third, the evolution of gangs over time provides insights into the mechanisms that make gangs threatening to society.

Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling 13(2) p. 91-109 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/jip.1440

The blame game is a term often used to describe a phenomenon which happens in groups of people when something goes wrong. The blame game hypothesis postulates that private investigators may be misled in their search for suspects, and that suspected individuals do not necessarily become subject to a fair investigation by financial crime specialists and fraud examiners. The rotten apple hypothesis postulates that it is comforting to assume that one bad apple within an organization is essentially responsible for the crime that is all too prevalent. The rotten apple view of white-collar crime is a comfortable perspective to apply to business and public organizations as it allows them to look no further than suspect a single individual. Based on a case study of the Norwegian company Hadeland and Ringerike Broadband, this article discusses blame game and rotten apple issues in an internal investigation report written by an external financial crime specialist. The study finds support for both hypotheses, as blame is mainly isolated to the criminal and his superior, and both board and top management are protected from scrutiny.

International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice 43(4) p. 535-552 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlcj.2015.01.001

Purpose: Recent work on gender and white-collar crime is extended through a case study examining gender differences in white-collar crime in Norway. Methods: Based on a content analysis of reports in Norwegian newspapers and court documents regarding white-collar crime cases that were of enough importance and notoriety so as to garner attention from national media outlets, this study investigates whether high level white-collar crime in Norway is gender neutral or gender specific (i.e., mostly male) as it is in the United States. Results: Even though gender inequality is much lower in Norway than the United States, the gender gap in Norwegian white-collar crime appears to be nearly identical to that observed in the United States. Out of 329 individuals identified in the newspaper reports only 22 (6.7%) were women. Conclusions: Formal gender equality does not appear to lead to increased involvement of women in white-collar crime, thus providing little support for the emancipation hypothesis and suggesting that theories focused on gendered focal concerns and gendered access to criminal opportunities have greater utility as explanations of the gender gap in white-collar crime.

Online Offending Behaviour and Child Victimization - New Findings and Policy p. 55-90 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-137-36511-8_4

Pakistan Journal of Criminology 7(1) p. 1-15

Online Offending Behaviour and Child Victimization - New Findings and Policy p. 1-20 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-137-36511-8_1

Journal of Computer Information Systems 55(2) p. 88-94 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/08874417.2015.11645760

Journal of Gender Studies 24(3) p. 310-325 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/09589236.2013.841571

Magma forskning og viten 18(6) p. 30-37

Hvitsnippforbrytere er personer som begår økonomisk kriminalitet i kraft av stilling, posisjon, nettverk og tillit. De siste fem årene – fra 2009 til 2014 – ble 353 personer dømt til fengsel for hvitsnippkriminalitet her i landet. Det var 24 kvinner (7 %) og 329 menn (93 %). Gjennomsnittlig alder ved domsavsigelse var 48 år. Gjennomsnittlig fengselsstraff var 2,2 år. 197 dømte avsluttet sin sak i tingretten (56 %), 136 avsluttet i lagmannsretten (38 %) og 20 i Høyesterett (6 %). Beløpet i kriminaliteten var gjennomsnittlig på 48 millioner kroner. De fleste hvitsnippdømte var ledere i kriminaliteten, og de fleste var råtne epler i råtne epletønner. Denne artikkelen presenterer forskjeller mellom ledere og medløpere i kriminaliteten og mellom råtne epler og epletønner. Karakteristiske trekk ved hvitsnippforbrytere blir oppsummert, og forskjeller mellom lovlydige og kriminelle hvitsnipper blir skissert.

Pakistan Journal of Criminology 6(1) p. 1-19

International Journal of Private Law (IJPL) 7(2) p. 159-174 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1504/IJPL.2014.060088

Handbook of Research on Knowledge Management: Adaptation and Context p. 53-68 Doi: https://doi.org/10.4337/9781783470426.00014

Journal of International Doctoral Research 3(1) p. 105-125

Palgrave Macmillan

CRC Press

Journal of Investment Compliance 15(4) p. 57-66 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/JOIC-04-2014-0014

The activity of private investigations by fraud examiners is a business of lawyers, auditors and other professionals who investigate suspicions of financial crime by white-collar criminals. This article presents results from an empirical study of investigation reports. The available sample consists of 21 report produced mostly by auditing firms such as PwC. Suspicion of financial crime led to police investigation, public prosecution and jail sentence in two cases.

International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice 42(3) p. 175-187 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlcj.2014.01.002

Research carried out previously, aimed at examining differences in the length of the sentencing and type of offence, have typically compared white collar and street criminality. The main aim of the current study is to examine the differences in sentence length for white collar occupational and corporate offenders from street crime offenses and to identify which factors eventually could explain such differences. The crime amount was smaller in occupational convictions despite the fact that the average crime amount was significantly less in this group compared to the crime amount among corporate criminals. Socioeconomic status and company size were not found to be associated with the length of the sentence. We discuss whether the difference in length of the sentence could be explained by the fact that occupational crime is committed for the criminals' own purposes or enrichment, while this is often not the case among corporate criminals.

Handbook of Research on Knowledge Management: Adaptation and Context p. 69-86 Doi: https://doi.org/10.4337/9781783470426.00015

Journal of Information & Knowledge Management 13(1) p. 1-9 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1142/S0219649214500014

The white-collar crime attorney is a lawyer who is competent in general legal principles and in the substantive and procedural aspects of the law related to upper-class financial crime. Based on a sample of 310 convicted white-collar criminals and their defense lawyers, this paper presents results from statistical analysis of relationships between crime characteristics and defense characteristics to predict lawyer fame. Statistical regression analysis was applied to the sample, where amount of crime money and years in prison represent crime characteristics, while number of client cases and lawyer income represent defense characteristics. Ninety-one percent of the variation in attorney fame is explained by these four independent variables.

Advances in Management 7(3) p. 16-22

Voprosy Rossiiskogo i Mezhdunarodnogo Prava 4(3-4) p. 19-47

Journal of International Doctoral Research 2(1) p. 55-77

Handbook of research on the learning organization : Adaption and context p. 179-210 Doi: https://doi.org/10.4337/9781781004906.00020

Al-Fikr Al-Shurti 22(85) p. 284-331 Doi: https://doi.org/10.12816/0000134

Corporate Reputation Review 16(3) p. 177-186 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1057/crr.2013.11

Policing White-collar Crime. Researching the Police in the Nordic Countries. Proceedings from the Fourth Nordic Police Research Seminar p. 75-88 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1201/b16232

Voprosy Rossiiskogo i Mezhdunarodnogo Prava 4 p. 19-37 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137387165_4

International Journal of Law and Management 55(4) p. 304-317 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/IJLMA-06-2012-0016

International Journal of Management and Enterprise Development 12(3) p. 263-275 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1504/IJMED.2013.054522

International Journal of Private Law (IJPL) 6(1) p. 52-66 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1504/IJPL.2013.050527

This article addresses the following research question: What differences might be found between white-collar criminals conducting fraud versus white-collar criminals involved in other kinds of financial crime? This research is important, as studies of white-collar criminals so far has focused on case studies rather than statistical analysis of a larger sample. Based on articles in Norwegian financial newspapers for one year, a total of 57 white-collar criminals convicted to jail sentence were identified. The average age of the convicted persons was 51 years. 54 out of 57 criminals were men. The average sentence was 3 years imprisonment. While no differences between fraud cases and non-fraud cases were found to be statistically different in this study, imprisonment for white-collar fraud cases was a longer jail sentence, fraud cases were associated with white-collar criminals with lower official persona income, and a greater number of persons were involved in each fraud case.

International Journal of Private Law (IJPL) 6(4) p. 383-394 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1504/IJPL.2013.056807

White-collar criminals are persons of respectability and high social status, who commit financial crime in the course of their occupation. In a national sample of 305 convicted criminals, the average age was 48 years old, and the average sentence was 2.2 years in prison. White-collar crime lawyers defend criminals in court. The case of Transocean is presented in this article, where the company and their prosecuted advisors will probably spend about $10 million on lawyers in the first round in a district court. This emphasizes a distinguishing feature of white-collar criminals from street criminals, where white-collar criminals can pay for a knowledgeable defense. Some criminals nay have quite famous lawyers, who are well-known for getting their probably guilty clients off. A knowledge level perspective is applied in this paper, where the relative knowledge between defense and prosecution has an influence on how the case is handled and possibly even on the court verdict.

Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling 10(1) p. 96-113 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/jip.1370

Voprosy Rossiiskogo i Mezhdunarodnogo Prava 3 p. 91-109

International Journal of Business Continuity and Risk Management (IJBCRM) 3(2) p. 167-177 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1504/IJBCRM.2012.047067

Strategic responses to crime: thinking locally, acting globally p. 255-272 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1201/b10596-35

Critical Criminology 20(2) p. 169-182 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10612-011-9133-0

In the research literature on white-collar crime, there seems to be a tendency to claim individual failure rather than systems failure. Occupational crime is often emphasized at the expense of corporate crime. In the research literature on misconduct and crime by police officers, however, there seems to be a tendency to claim systems failure. It is argued that police crime is a result of bad practice, lack of resources or mismanagement, rather than acts of criminals. Based on two empirical studies in Norway of business and police crime, this paper is concerned with the extent to which the rotten apple theory versus the rotten barrel theory can explain crime in business organizations and police organizations.

International Journal of Management, Knowledge and Learning 1(1) p. 45-54

International Journal of Criminal Justice Sciences 7(2) p. 575-590 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1504/ijbcrm.2012.047067

Journal of Money Laundering Control 15(3) p. 362-373 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/13685201211238089

Strategic responses to crime: thinking locally, acting globally p. 175-194 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1350/ijps.2008.10.1.76

Criminal justice studies 25(1) p. 3-16 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/1478601X.2012.657899

Police Practice & Research 13(6) p. 501-512 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2012.656412

The prevalence of police deviance is a much-debated statistic and one that is often rife with problems. Based on 61 convicted police officers in Norway, court cases are analyzed in this paper to identify relationships between imprisonment days for convicted police officers and motive and brutality as determinants of each sentence. While there is a positive correlation found between severity of sentence and the extent of personal motive, there is a negative correlation between severity of sentence and the extent of brutality applied in policing. This is explained by neutralization theory in the paper.

Journal of Money Laundering Control 15(1) p. 6-24 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/13685201211194709

There is a debate in the research literature whether to view police misconduct and crime as acts of individuals perceived as 'rotten apples' or as an indication of systems failure in the police force. Based on an archival analysis of court cases where police employees were prosecuted, this paper attempts to explore the extent of rotten apples versus systems failure in the police. Exploratory research of 57 prosecuted police officers in Norway indicate that there were more rotten apple cases than system failure cases. The individual failures seem to be the norm rather than the exception of ethical breaches, therefore enhancing the rotten apple theory. However as exploratory research, police crime may still be explained at the organizational level as well.

Pakistan Journal of Criminology 3/4(4/1) p. 15-32 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1504/ijpl.2013.050527

Journal of Leadership Studies 6(1) p. 23-29 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/jls.21225

Background for this study is the increased complexity in policing that has become more knowledge-based and more professional in the last decade. Aim of this paper is to present empirical results from a study of attitudes of police managers to different leadership roles in their jobs in two police districts in Norway. A questionnaire was developed and administered among police managers in two police districts in Norway. Participants in leadership programs were selected for this survey research. Follo police district and Hedmark police district had a total of 130 participants in these programs with 60 managers from Follo and 70 managers from Hedmark. The survey research was carried out in March and April 2010. The personnel leader role was found to be most important, followed by the resource allocator role. Responding police managers reported that the felt least competent in the liaison role.

International Journal of Innovation and Learning 11(3) p. 250-267 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1504/IJIL.2012.046065

The purpose of this empirical study was to create insights into executives´ knowledge of white-collar crime and how they can prevent criminal behavior in business organizations. That involves mapping their perceptions of magnitude, attitude, risks and offenders. Our research was carried out by a web-based questionnaire combined with a letter to the largest business organizations in Norway. In terms of risk, respondents suggest that probability of white-collar crime is low, while consequences when occurring are substantial. Most likely position category for white-collar crime is a purchasing manager, followed by a marketing manager, and a person in executive management. External and internal control authorities need to focus less on routines and regulations and more on persons in vulnerable positions. This is how criminal behavior can be prevented. Both descriptive statistics as well as correlation analysis in this paper provide new insights into the extent of white-collar crime, as well as attitudes, risks and vulnerable positions for white-collar crime. Concerning executives own knowledge, they claim to be more competent in discovering, and thus preventing, white-collar crime. They also claim an increased police competence.

Journal of Money Laundering Control 15(2) Doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/13685201211218199

This article addresses the following research question: What are the characteristics of white-collar criminals in Norway? Our research is based on data from articles in Norwegian financial newspapers for one year were a total of 67 white-collar criminals convicted to jail sentence were identified. Our sample is analyzed and presented in comparising with especially U.S. literature on characteristics of white-collar criminals, which is believed to be both general and limited. Our contribution is also important, as studies of white-collar criminals so far has focused on case studies rather than statistical analysis of a larger sample. We find that the typically white-collar criminal is male, 46 years old, involved with first time crime of the amount of 30 million US dollars and convicted to 3 years of imprisonment. As a contradiction to previous literature on white-collar crime, we also find that they are not part of upper-class and higly education. On the contrary, even though mostly being leaders, they are not higly educated, but have a position that gives them access to money. Consequently, we also find that manipulation and fraud is the most common form of white-collar crime in Norway.

International Journal of Law and Management 54(3) p. 222-233 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/17542431211228629

Purpose – A conceptual framework for police deviance and crime has recently been suggested and presented by other scholars. This research attempts to test the framework empirically based on court cases where police employees were prosecuted and convicted. Design/methodology/approach – The sliding slope in the conceptual framework was separated into two dimensions, motive and damage, respectively. Court cases were coded according to these dimensions. Findings – Empirical results provide support for the framework by linking seriousness to court sentence in terms of imprisonment days to the sliding slope. However, further validation of the framework is needed. Originality/value – It is useful to both academics and practitioners to have an organizing framework when considering police complaints and prosecuting police crime.

Journal of Strategic Management Education 8(3)

International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice 40(3) p. 211-222 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlcj.2012.03.005

International Journal of Business Governance and Ethics 6(4) p. 385-396 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1504/IJBGE.2011.044737

Internet Child Abuse – Current Research and Policy p. 79-105 Doi: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003089155-12

Routledge

International Journal of Services and Standards 7(3/4) p. 235-248 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1504/IJSS.2011.045050

The purpose of this paper is to present results from a survey of police managers in Norway on leadership roles and occupational culture. A total of eighteen police personnel values for occupational culture were applied in this research. All of them represent cultural dimensions of potential importance to law enforcement performance. Respondents emphasized the role of personnel leader where the manager is responsible for supervising, hiring, training, organizing, coordinating, and motivating a cadre of personnel to achieve the goals of the organization. Empirical research as presented in this paper is important to generate insights into links between theory and practice in police management.

Pakistan Journal of Criminology 3(2) p. 125-139 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/17542431211228629

World Scientific

Professional Issues in Criminal Justice 6(3&4) p. 75-88

Public Leadership p. 22-37

Police Practice & Research 12(5) p. 397-409 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2010.536723

International Journal of Corporate Governance 2(2) p. 95-105 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1504/IJCG.2011.041149

Professional Issues in Criminal Justice 6(1&2) p. 41-51 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1504/ijbge.2011.044737

The Police Journal 83(4) p. 339-363 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1350/pojo.2010.83.4.502

International Journal of Information Management 31(3) p. 226-233 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2010.07.002

Effective crime reduction strategies : international perspectives p. 25-41 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1201/b10596-4

International Journal of Corporate Governance 2(3/4) p. 268-287 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1504/IJCG.2011.044378

The purpose of this article is to explore the concept of stages of growth in organizational research by applying this concept to the issue of corporate social responsibility (CSR). The article starts by reviewing theory building from a stage model perspective. Next, key CSR models are reviewed, before the stage model perspective is applied to the CSR phenomenon. We suggest a stage model for corporate social responsibility consisting of three combined stages. For each of these stages we highlight the distinction between first movers and followers. By including these perspectives we put forward the “hidden fact” that corporations that might look equally CSR engaged from the outside, can be at very different levels of CSR on the inside. The model suggested should be tested in the future through benchmarking corporations. By applying the suggested model, corporations can get a deeper understanding of their CSR status. The model suggested takes into consideration an issue which has received little attention in CSR research so far. Rather than studying annual reports and statements about corporate social responsibility, the practice of local and global companies should be studied, as there seems to be a substantial discrepancy between talk and walk in CSR. To this end, the stage model is proposed to help guide future CSR development in companies.

Journal of Emerging Trends in Computing and Information Sciences (CIS) 2(9) p. 447-455

Criminal justice studies 24(1) p. 23-36 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/1478601X.2011.544188

Journal of Emerging Trends in Computing and Information Sciences (CIS) 2(4) p. 173-181 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/1478601x.2012.657899

International Journal of Police Science and Management 13(1) p. 16-28 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1350/ijps.2011.13.1.222

Journal of Financial Crime 18(1) p. 76-92 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/13590791111098816

Journal of Enterprising Communities: People and Places in the Global Economy 5(4) p. 300-308 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/17506201111177334

A legal entrepreneur is a person who operates a new enterprise or venture and assumes some accountability for the inherent risk. Similarly, the criminal entrepreneur's task is to discover and exploit opportunities, defined most simply as situations in which there are a profit to be made in criminal activity. Examples of criminal entrepreneurship committed by otherwise legal entrepreneurs are commonly labeled as white-collar criminality. This paper discusses how criminal entrepreneurship by white-collar criminals can be explained by neutralization theory as white-collar criminals tend to apply techniques of neutralization used by offenders to deny the criminality of their actions.

Journal of Money Laundering Control 14(4) p. 300-312 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/13685201111173785

A special kind of financial crime is labelled white-collar crime, where characteristics of the offender include position, power, relationships, and social status. The purpose of this empirical study of white-collar crime in business organizations was to create insights into perceptions of potential offenders. The study identified financial misconduct by chief executives in the company as the crime associated with the most serious consequence for the company. A person in purchasing and procurement function is assumed to be most likely involved in white-collar crime.

Effective crime reduction strategies : international perspectives p. 587-603

Internet Child Abuse – Current Research and Policy p. 27-51

Journal of Media Studies 26(2) p. 124-142 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-68916-6_3

Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice 5(2) p. 172-179 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/police/par019

Learning Organization 18(6) p. 486-500 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/09696471111171321

Purpose – The aim of this paper is to investigate the extent to which espoused values among police managers in the Norwegian police force are compatible with those of a learning organization. Design/methodology/approach – A questionnaire was developed and administered to police managers in two police districts in Norway. A set of values was developed to measure police culture and their significant correlation with those of a learning organization. All values were believed to represent cultural dimensions of potential importance to law enforcement performance. Findings – It was found that police managers espoused values of informality and empowerment rather than authority and hierarchical order. These values are the only police values that are found to be significantly correlated with those of a learning organization. Moreover, these findings contradict the previous literature within policing, which describes a police culture of hierarchy, authority and closeness. Also, these values only represent two of the eight values that were found to be crucial for becoming a learning organization. Research limitations/implications – There is a need for police managers to both espouse and enact values in accordance of those of a learning organization, but this study only investigates espoused values. Hence, further research is needed to investigate the possibilities for the Norwegian police force to become a learning organization. Originality/value – The paper provides empirical research to generate insights into espoused values of the Norwegian police force and identifies those values that are crucial for their possibilities of becoming a learning organization

Journal of Forensic Accounting 3(1) p. 23-48

Policing and Society: An International Journal of Research and Policy 21(1) p. 96-109 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/10439463.2010.540653

International Journal of Management and Enterprise Development 10(1) p. 20-30 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1504/IJMED.2011.039656

The job of a manager consists of several parallel roles. A manager may perceive one role as more important than other roles. The goal of this paper is to present results from a survey of police managers in Norway on the relative importance of leadership roles. A questionnaire was developed to measure leadership roles in police districts. Respondents emphasised the role of personnel leader where the manager is responsible for supervising, hiring, training, organising, coordinating and motivating a cadre of personnel to achieve the goals of the organisation.

International Journal of Police Science and Management 13(1) p. 87-102 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1350/ijps.2011.13.1.213

International Journal of Law and Management 53(3) p. 169-181 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/17542431111133409

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to study police crime, which is defined as crime committed by police employees on duty. Methods: Based on an empirical study of all police court crime cases in Norway for the last four years, relationships between coded variables from court cases are explored in this paper. Results: The court sentence measured in terms of days in jail is influenced by motive, source of information and police culture. Conclusions: Based on court documents, this study developed measures, coded court text and analyzed relationships between constructs. The analysis identified crime motive, police culture and information source as predictors of jail sentence length. The extent of physical versus non-physical crime by police employees on duty was influenced by crime motive. The source of information tends to be police officers internally when a colleague has committed a physical rather than non-physical crime.

Applied Technology Integration in Governmental Organizations: New E-Government Research Doi: https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-60960-162-1.ch017

Management Online Review

The Police Journal 82(4) p. 315-330

International Journal of Information Management 30(4) p. 343-349 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2010.01.002

Journal for International Business and Entrepreneurship Development 5(1) p. 63-76

International Journal of Management and Enterprise Development 8(3) p. 243-259

Management Online Review

Management Online Review

International Journal of Management and Enterprise Development 9(1) p. 76-86

Feminism and Women in Leadership

Journal of Financial Crime 17(2) p. 210-222

Criminal justice studies 23(1) p. 21-31

The Police Journal 83(2) p. 93-95

International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice 38(2) p. 49-58 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlcj.2010.02.001

International Journal of Mobile Learning and Organisation 4(3) p. 269-280

International Journal of Police Science and Management 12(1) p. 55-68

Universal-Publishers

CRC Press

Information Systems Frontiers 12(3) p. 267-275 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10796-009-9178-8

International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business (IJESB) 9(3) p. 295-307

Journal of Organizational Computing and Electronic Commerce 20(3) p. 279-293 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/10919392.2010.494535

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to present and test a modeling procedure, as researchers have struggled for decades to develop stages of growth models that are both theoretically founded and empirically validated. This article presents the concept and hypothesis of stages, the history of stage models and a procedure that may serve as a useful tool in modeling stages of growth. Design/methodology/approach – Based on previous research and lessons learned from case study experience of the government sector in Norway, a procedure for the stages of growth modeling process is suggested and demonstrated. The procedure was used developing a stage model for e-government interoperability. Findings – This article provides new insight into issues and challenges faced when engaging in stages of growth research. The paper proposes a new approach to stages of growth modeling. Originality/value – The utility of the suggested procedure is to improve theory building and empirical validation. The contribution to academia is the modeling process that can be applied in future developments of stages of growth. The contribution to practice lies in the stage hypothesis of organizational development over time.

International Journal of Human Resources Development and Management 10(2) p. 117-135

Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management 33(1) p. 52-68 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/13639511011020593

International Journal of Business and Systems Research 4(4) p. 402-416

Oxford University Press

Pakistan Journal of Criminology 2(4) p. 83-96

Journal of Computer Information Systems p. 41-49

Journal of Emerging Trends in Computing and Information Sciences (CIS) 1(1) p. 1-10

Pakistan Journal of Criminology 2(4)

International Journal of Strategic Technology and Applications 1(1) p. 8-22

Nova Science Publishers

Learning Organization 17(5) p. 404-418

Journal of Financial Crime 17(4) p. 441-458

International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice 38(3) p. 94-108 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlcj.2010.09.001

International Journal of Innovation and Learning 6(4) p. 448-460

International Journal of Business and Systems Research 3(2) p. 135-147

Criminal justice studies 22(3) p. 273-280

Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development 16(3) p. 432-442

BrownWalker Press

The Police Journal 82 p. 149-170

International Real Estate Review 12(1) p. 88-97

Learning Organization 16(2) p. 88-102

The Police Journal 81(4) p. 279-293

International Journal of Electronic Government Research 5(4) p. 14-27

International Journal of Digital Crime and Forensics 1(4) p. 1-18

Policing and Society: An International Journal of Research and Policy 19(1) p. 47-57 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/10439460802457701

International Journal of Police Science and Management 11(2) p. 170-182

European Journal of Crime, Criminal Law and Criminal Justice 17 p. 293-307

International Journal of Business and Systems Research 3(3) p. 297-308

International Journal of Police Science and Management 11(4) p. 429-441

Sahu, Dwivedi, Weerakkody (eds), E-Government Development and Diffusion: Inhibitors and FAcilitators of Digital Democracy p. 22-32

Chhabra and Kumar (eds), Integrating E-Business Models for Government Solutions: Citizen-Centric Service Oriented Methodologies and Processes p. 50-66

Criminal justice studies 22(1) p. 3-15

BrownWalker Press

International Journal of Innovation and Learning 6(4) p. 438-447

International Journal of Electronic Government Research 5(4) p. 14-27

Industrial management & data systems 109(8-9) p. 1264-1273 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/02635570911002315

Management Online Review

Government Information Quarterly: an international journal of information technology management, policies, and practices 26(1) p. 75-81 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.giq.2008.03.003

Information Technology & Tourism 11 p. 129-138

Edward Elgar Publishing

International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice 36(1) p. 54-66 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsl.2007.07.002

Nova Science Publishers

International Journal of the Sociology of Law 36(3) p. 184-195

International Journal of Business and Systems Research 2(3) p. 227-243

International Journal of Police Science and Management 10(1) p. 76-88

The Police Journal 81(1) p. 46-61

Electronic Government, an International Journal 5(4) p. 364-374

International Journal of Management and Enterprise Development 5(1) p. 49-62

International Journal of Knowledge and Learning 4(4) p. 349-356

International Journal of Public Sector Management 21(3) p. 271-284

Magma forskning og viten 11(5) p. 87-94

Knowledge and Process Management 14(2) p. 71-80

International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice 36(3) p. 184-195 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlcj.2008.05.001

International Journal of Innovation and Learning 5(6) p. 651-663

International Journal of Management and Enterprise Development 5(6) p. 708-722

International Journal of Management and Enterprise Development 5(2) p. 251-263

Advances in Management 1(8) p. 7-12

Journal of Financial Crime 15(1) p. 38-48

Electronic Government, an International Journal 5(4) p. 445-451

International Journal of Police Science and Management 10(3) p. 289-301

Industrial management & data systems 108(5-6) p. 635-649 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/02635570810876769

Fagbokforlaget

Police Practice & Research 9(4) p. 343-358

International Journal of the Sociology of Law 36 p. 2-2

International Journal of Management and Enterprise Development 5(4) p. 484-496

Police Practice & Research 9(5) p. 365-377

International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice 36(2) p. 106-114 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlcj.2007.12.002

International Journal of Innovation and Learning 5(2) p. 170-185

Electronic Government, an International Journal 5(3) p. 310-320

International Journal of the Sociology of Law 36(1) p. 54-66

Electronic Government, an International Journal 4(1) p. 59-67

Journal of Computer Information Systems 47(3) p. 45-59

Oxford University Press

Magma forskning og viten 10(4) p. 105-108

International Journal of Services and Standards 3(4) p. 402-412

Predicting outsourcing success : public vs. business sector p. 400-406

Outsourcing of IT functions in organizations are analyzed with a focus on the contractual arrangement or the informal dynamics of the outsourcing relationship. This paper follows the tradition of the latter approach, introducing the relative importance of conflict management and information sharing as intervening variables explaining outsourcing success. The analysis of the outsourcing experience of 92 public and business organizations in Norway reveals that about 3/4 of the organizations have outsourced some or all of the IT functions. The analysis also reveals that businesses more often organize the outsourcing as a project compared with public organizations. Outsourcing success is most often achieved by business organizations that outsource all or a large proportion of IT functions as a project. The importance of information sharing as an intervening variable also contributes towards explaining variation in outsourcing success, but the importance of conflict management is a marginal variable in this study. The background and intervening variables explain about 25% of the variance in outsourcing success. Further research with a modified operationalization of the intervening variables is necessary to improve the prediction of outsourcing success.

International Journal of Innovation and Learning 4(3) p. 255-273

Electronic Government, an International Journal 4(2) p. 191-203

International Journal of Innovation and Learning 4(4) p. 391-410

International Journal of Management and Enterprise Development 4(2) p. 128-142

International Journal of Police Science and Management 9(2) p. 112-121

International Journal of Knowledge and Learning 3(1) p. 76-87

International Journal of the Sociology of Law 35(2) p. 96-107

International Journal of Police Science and Management 3(1) p. 76-87

A qualitative study of detectives’ investigative thinking in Australia identified four thinking styles: method style, challenge style, skill style and risk style. Multiple item scales were developed for these four constructs in a survey instrument. A quantitative study based on the questionnaire was conducted among detectives in Norway. None of the multiple item scales achieved acceptable reliability. Factor analysis suggests a number of new thinking styles, including entrepreneur style and architect style.

International Journal of Business and Systems Research 1(1) p. 47-60

International Journal of Information Technology and Decision Making 6(4) p. 751-765

International Journal of Information Management 27(1) p. 36-48

The Canadian Journal of Police & Security Services 5(1/2) p. 1-9

International Journal of Innovation and Learning 4(5) p. 501-515

International Journal of Learning and Change 2(1) p. 20-33

International Journal of Mobile Learning and Organisation 1(2) p. 184-197

Information Technology (IT) governance is concerned with decision rights, resource mobilisation and strategic alignment to achieve more benefits from information systems. In an outsourcing relationship, governance arrangements shift from being intra-organisational to being inter-organisational. Inter-organisational relationships are often based on virtual organisations, especially in offshore arrangements. Mobile learning and organisation will enhance the performance in outsourcing arrangements. A framework to discuss these issues is introduced in this paper in terms of an IT outsourcing governance model. Mechanisms in the model were empirically rated in a survey in Norway.

International Journal of Management and Enterprise Development 4(4) p. 477-487

The contingent approach to management is applied in this paper by making leadership roles dependent on critical success factors. Six leadership roles are made dependent on 11 critical success factors derived from outsourcing theories. An empirical study was conducted in Norway. Results indicate that the most critical success factor for the client organisation is core competence management. Core competence management is best achieved when the outsourcing project manager focuses on the entrepreneurial role.

Magma forskning og viten 10(5) p. 63-69

Human Systems Management 26 p. 173-180

The Canadian Journal of Police & Security Services 5(3/4) p. 1-8

Enterprise Information Systems 1(4) p. 443-455

Journal of Knowledge Management 3(4) p. 111-222

Knowledge and Process Management 14(2) p. 71-80

International Journal of Management Practice 2(4) p. 269-282

International Journal of Innovation and Learning 4(2) p. 103-111

Journal of Computer Information Systems 46

With changing business environments, the locus of value creation is no longer within the boundaries of a single firm, but occurs instead at the nexus of relationships between parties. With the growing importance of pooling knowledge resources, knowledge management will have to transcend organizational boundaries. Based on current research literature, this paper develops research propositions to study causal aspects of knowledge management systems supporting IT outsourcing relationships. Perspectives from the research literature applied in this paper include knowledge transfer, strategic intent, knowledge management technology stages, intangible assets, resource-based theory, vendor value proposition, value shop, and knowledge strategy.

Knowledge-Based Systems 19 p. 381-387

The amount of information that police officers come into contact with in the course of their work is astounding. By identifying stages of growth in knowledge management systems and by identifying examples of applications from police investigations, this paper makes an important contribution to strategic planning of knowledge management systems in law enforcement. The stages are labeled officer-to-technology systems, officer-to-officer systems, officer-to-information systems, and officer-to-application systems. (c) 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Expert Systems 23 p. 183-193

This paper is concerned with relationships between the use of information technology at different stages of the knowledge management technology stage model and the performance of police investigation units. The model consists of four stages: officer-to-technology systems, officer-to-officer systems, officer-to-information systems, and officer-to-application systems. The model was applied for information technology business value research, which examines the organizational performance impacts of information technology. In this paper we applied the value configuration of the value shop to describe and measure organizational performance. Based on an empirical study of Norwegian police investigation units, this research found that officer-to-technology systems and officer-to-information systems are the most important systems to improve police investigations in the value shop.

Industrial management & data systems 106

Originality/value - This paper suggests that a long-term IT outsourcing relationship will shift focus as it matures. The original value of the paper is the theory-based stage model having implications for managers in understanding the current and desired situation for an outsourcing relationship.

Industrial management & data systems 106(1) p. 1060-1070

Originahty/value - Traditionally, data systems in industrial management have been supporting value chains. Recently, alternative value configurations have emerged. Specifically, the value shop and the value network are alternative value configurations. This paper makes an important contribution to insights into information systems depending on value configurations. The final section of this paper suggests that industrial management might expand from value chain management to value shop management as firms become electronic businesses.

Idea Group Publishing

International Journal of the Sociology of Law 34 p. 221-228

Kunnskapsdeling og dyktighet i politietterforskning p. 115-124

Engineering Management Journal (EMJ) 18(1) p. 30-36

Criminal justice studies 19(4) p. 423-437

Magma forskning og viten 9(1) p. 88-102

Magma forskning og viten 9(5/6) p. 140-145

International Journal of Innovation and Learning 3(6) p. 593-606

The Canadian Journal of Police & Security Services 4(4) p. 171-177

Expert Systems With Applications 31

The ambition level using knowledge management systems can be defined in terms of stages of knowledge management technology. Stage I is labelled end-user-tool systems or person-to-technology, as information technology provides people with tools that improve personal efficiency. Examples are word processing, spreadsheets, and presentation software. Stage 11 is labelled who-knows-what systems or person-to-person, as people use information technology to find other knowledge workers. Examples are yellow-page systems, CVs and intranets. Stage III is labelled what-they-know systems or person-to-information, as information technology provides people with access to information that is typically stored in documents. Examples of documents are contracts, articles, drawings, blueprints, photographs, emails, presentations and reports. Stage IV is labelled how-they-think systems or person-to-system, in which the system is intended to help solve a knowledge problem. Examples are expert systems and business intelligence. This paper documents some of the links between police investigations and knowledge management systems using the stages of growth model for knowledge management technology. (c) 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Industrial management & data systems 105(9) p. 1137-1149

Idea Group Publishing

Industrial management & data systems 105(6) p. 685-702

Originality/value - This paper demonstrates that a holistic approach to IT outsourcing is needed that recognizes and emphasizes the combination of several critical success factors. The theory-based factors have both divergent and convergent implications for management.

Electronic Government, an International Journal 2(3) p. 292-304

Journal of Computer Information Systems 44(4) p. 111-124

? 1(1)

Magma forskning og viten 7(3) p. 77-88

International review of law computers & technology 18(3)

Khosrow-Pour, M. (ed.): Advanced Topics in Information Resources Management p. 262-274

Engineering Management Journal (EMJ) 16(1) p. 3-10

Journal of Computer Information Systems 44(1) p. 112-119

Journal of Knowledge Management 7(4) p. 92-105

International Journal of Information Technology and Management 2(4) p. 324-344

Information Resources Management Journal 16(1) p. 14-23

Grembergen, W V (ed.): Strategies for Information Technology Governance

Engineering Management Journal (EMJ) 14(2) p. 5-11

International Journal of Technology, Policy and Management (IJTPM) 2(2) p. 93-101

? 14(1) p. 137-149

Informing Science 5(4) p. 189-218

? 14(2) p. 26-26

Informing Science 5(2) p. 79-93

? p. 32-32

? 1 p. 34-34

Knowledge Management Systems p. 82-94

Journal of Computer Information Systems 42(5) p. 50-58

Journal of Global Information Management 10(2) p. 40-49

International Project Management Journal 8(1) p. 7-13

Advanced Topics in Information Resources Management p. 127-140

Knudtzon, S and Omsted, W (red): Å være advokat p. 338-366

? 11(1) p. 99-120

? 102(6) p. 325-331

Advanced Topics in Global Information Management p. 304-319

International Journal of Information Technology and Management 1(1) p. 83-102

? 1(4) p. 357-366

Technological Forecasting and Social Change 68(2) p. 207-221

Information Resources Management Journal 14(2) p. 37-45

Læring gjennom økonomi, system og prosjekt : festskrift til Erling S.Andersen/ Welle-Strand, A. og Gottschalk, P. (red)

Knowledge and Process Management 8(3) p. 186-194

Læring gjennom økonomi, system og prosjekt : festskrift til Erling S.Andersen p. 122-138

Information technolgy management: alternative and adaptive futures/Hachny,R. and D.Dunn (eds.)

Journal of Information, Law and Technology 2

Strategic information technolgy: opportunities for competitive advantage/Papp,R. (ed.) p. 15-168

Læring gjennom økonomi, system og prosjekt: Festskrift til Erling S. Andersen/Gottschalk,P. and Welle-Strand,A. (eds.) p. 111-121

Kunne ikke finne tidsskrift Papp, R p. 153-171

Informing Science 3(3) p. 117-124

? 14(1) p. 115-129

? 15 p. 69-78

Kunne ikke finne tidsskrift Dunn, D p. 106-126

Journal of Global Information Management 8(4) p. 43-52

Informing Science 3(2) p. 31-39

Journal of Information, Law and Technology p. 7-7

International Journal of Information Management 20 p. 169-180

? 3(1) p. 2-2

European Journal of Information Systems 8(2) p. 107-118

Information & Management 36(2) p. 77-91

International Journal of Information Management 19 p. 389-399

? 32(3) p. 362-372

Scandinavian Journal of Information Systems (SJIS) 11

Journal of Information, Law and Technology ?(3)

Journal of Knowledge Management 3(3) p. 203-211

Journal of Global Information Technology Management 2(4) p. 41-60

? 2(4) p. 95-105

Universitetsforlaget

? p. 72-75

Scandinavian Journal of Information Systems (SJIS) 9(2) p. 57-66

? p. 99-108