Ivar Gaasland

Applied Economics Letters 27(2) s. 145-149 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/13504851.2019.1610702

While variation in unit value most commonly has been associated with quality in the trade literature, observed differences in prices between markets might also be explained by variation in market concentration and the degree of competition. Using transaction data on Norwegian exports of salmon, we introduce a Herfindahl index as a measure of competition in a standard gravity model. We find that competition typically is weaker in small and distant markets that due to high trade costs are served by relatively few firms. We argue that the anti-competitive impact of trade costs may explain price differentiation between markets even for homogeneous products.

Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy 41(2) s. 249-264 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/aepp/ppy011

Journal of Commodity Markets 12 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcomm.2017.12.002

In recent years, trade dynamics have been receiving increased attention, and the general literature indicates that commodities are different. In this paper, the duration of trade relationships for Norwegian export firms to various markets is investigated for six product forms of one commodity, cod. The results indicate that the duration of most trade relationships is very short, and shorter than what is normally reported in the literature. Still, the substantial variation in duration by product form and factors influencing it, indicates heterogeneous dynamics for each supply chain even for slight differences in the characteristics of a commodity. Moreover, the short duration of trade relationships in the supply chains for Norwegian cod indicates that they remain very traditional food supply chains, with few attempts at reducing transaction costs through vertical coordination or relationships.

Samfunnsøkonomen s. 39-47

Bøndene hevder at jordbruket må skjermes mot klimatiltak som rammer norsk matforsyning,målt ved selvforsyningsgraden. Ved å endre sammensetningen av jordbruksstøtten i favør av matvarer som forurenser lite i forhold til næringsinnhold, viser vi at klimagassutslippene fra norsk jordbruk kan kuttes mye, eksemplifisert ved 40%, uten at elvforsyningsgraden svekkes og samtidig som budsjettutgiftene kan reduseres kraftig. Politikkendringen vil i tillegg bringe kostholdet mer i retning av de offisielle kostrådene til Helsedirektoratet, som anbefaler at vi spiser mindre rødt kjøtt og mer planteprodukter og fisk. Resultatene gir støtte til synspunkter i grønn skattekommisjon om at klimautfordringene også må reflekteres i jordbrukspolitikken.

EuroChoices 14(1) s. 35-41 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/1746-692X.12080

Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy 37(3) s. 418-436 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/aepp/ppu038

Interessekonflikter i norsk handelspolitikk / Arne Melchior og Ulf Sverdrup (redaktører) s. 35-58

EuroChoices 14(2) s. 34-40 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/1746-692X.12089

Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 184 s. 59-66 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2013.11.025

EuroChoices 12(3) s. 4-9 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/1746-692x.12033

Hvordan ser verden ud? 73 bidrag om økonomi, institutioner og værdier. Professor Niels Kærgård 70 år s. 60-70

Samfunnsøkonomen

World Trade Review 10(3) s. 417-421 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1474745611000243

Journal of International Agricultural Trade and Development 6(2) s. 195-217 Doi: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1550642

WTO Disciplines on Agricultural Support: Seeking a Fair Basis for Trade s. 189-220

The World Economy 33(11) s. 1470-1485 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9701.2010.01298.x

A new round of trade negotiations under the World Trade Organization (WTO) was launched in 2001. One of the major aims of the Doha Development Round is to reduce agricultural protection and impose greater discipline on domestic agricultural subsidies, particularly those that are most trade distorting. In this article, we examine whether the proposed WTO modalities for agriculture will actually achieve this aim in the case of Norway. Norwegian agriculture, which accounts for less than one per cent of GDP and three per cent of domestic employment, is among the most heavily protected in the world (NILF, 2007). The OECD's producer support estimate for Norway was 62 per cent in 2008, the highest among the Organization's member countries (OECD, 2009). Norway has a complex system of farm subsidies involving deficiency payments, structural income support, acreage and headage payments, and a range of indirect supports. The system is buttressed by substantial import protection, which limits market access. Consequently, the extent to which Norway will have to change its agricultural support policies in response to new WTO disciplines provides an important indicator of how successful theese are likely to be.

Journal of International Agricultural Trade and Development 6(2) s. 197-220

Computational Economics 34(3) s. 309-322 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10614-009-9175-5

Food Policy 34(4) s. 393-397 Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2009.02.005

Multifunctionality in agriculture. Evaluating the degree of jointness, policy implications s. 171-181

Våronn med nye muligheter Ressurs- og opplevelsesbasert verdiskaping på vestlandsbygdene s. 314-330

Økonomisk forum 60(1) s. 37-47

European Review of Agricultural Economics 32(4) s. 469-488

Nordic Journal of Political Economy (NOPEC) 31(2) s. 77-97

European Review of Agricultural Economics 32(4) s. 469-488

Nordic Journal of Political Economy (NOPEC) 31(2) s. 77-97

A milk marketing board (MMB) is a well known instrument for regulating the markets for dairy products. MMBs are based on price discrimination, and receipts from sales are pooled so that the farmers receive a single price adjusted for composition and quality. Using a numerical model, we find that the economic welfare cost of the Norwegian MMB, is as much as 26.3% of the milk production value. This computed cost is far larger than for the other countries with MMBs. The main reasons are that exports are a major ingredient of the Norwegian system, and that production costs are very high.

Nordic Journal of Political Economy (NOPEC) 31(2) s. 77-97

The Food Sector in Transition - Nordic Research Proceedings of NJF-seminar No. 313, June 2000 s. 173-187

Multifunctionality of Agriculture

The Food Sector in Transition - Nordic Research Proceedings of NJF-seminar No. 313, June 2000 s. 173-187

The Food Sector in Transition - Nordic Research Procedings of NJF - seminar nr. 313

The Food Sector in Transition - Nordic Research Procedings of NJF - seminar nr. 313

Land Economics 75(205) s. 538-546

It is often asserted that agricultural land yields significant amenity benefits that could be used as a rationale for some of the substantial support to agriculture occuring in many industrialized countries. This paper introduces a method for incorporating information on the willingness to pay for landscape preservation gained from contingent valuation studies in the objective function of a price-endogenous, mathematical programming model for the agricultural sector. Optimal levels of support, production, land use, and employment an then be calculated. The method is illustrated using data from Sweden and four U.S. Communities, and a programming model for the Norwegian agricultural sector.

Land Economics 75(4) s. 538-546

Applied Economics 30(Reprint) s. 951-957

Tariffs and quotas are alternative trade instruments. In most cases i t has been shown that the use of tariffs results in a higher national welfare the use of quotas. Most of the research in this field has be en purely theoretical. This paper aims to give an empirical contribut ion. Referring to the Norwegian apple market, we analyse the effects of tarrifs and quotas. A trariff system is estimated to be slightly m ore efficient than a quota system (+2%). However, the distributional effects are substantial. Wholesalers and importers are main gainers i n quota system, while consumers and farmers are losers.

Norsk landbruk og EU - hva kan forskerne si?

Sosialøkonomen 48(7/8) s. 14-21

Norsk Økonomisk Tidsskrift 108 s. 173-188

Klima

Samfunns- og næringslivsforskning (SNF)

We conduct a WTO-consistent assessment of Norwegian agricultural programs and policy since 1995. Most important, we highlight cases where Norway has found ways to work around its WTO-commitments in order to avoid policy reform. On several occasions Norway has been on the edge of breaking the amber box commitment. In these cases, Norway’s response has been to abolish target prices on certain products, thereby excluding the corresponding market price support from the amber box calculation. In this way, Norway has been able to keep up production and forestall agricultural restructuring. Even if this is legal, it is clearly against the intensions of the WTO principles. We also argue that several of the entities put into green box are questionable. For example, the “Vacation and replacement scheme” seem to be amber support masked as green support.

Agriculture and greenhouse gases. NFJ seminar 453

Working Paper 03-2009 Department of Economics

NIBIO

IFPRI Discussion Paper No. 812

The Institute of Economics, Zagreb Friedrich Ebert Stiftung

Prevention of depopulation in remote areas has traditionally been an important political goal in Western-European societies. This may be rationalized as follows: If the density of population in an area drops to very low levels, the cost of providing basic infrastructure may become prohibitively high. As long as total depopulation is undesireable, this is an argument for keeping the population density above some critical level. The most efficient way of achieving this goal would seem to be some general income support to all inhabitants in remote areas or a general wage sdubsidy to all industries and not support confined to a single industry. This paper introduces a method for incorporating information on the willingness to pay for regional activity in the objective function of a price-endogenous, mathematical programming model for the agricultural sector of Norway. Optimal levels of support, production, land use and activity in various regions are calculated. Our conclusion is that regional preferences do not affect the national activity level of agruculture, but affect the distribution of the activity level between regions.

? s. 74-83

Department of Economics, Norwegian School of Business and Adminstration

Norges Handelshøyskole

The producer support estimate (the successor to the producer support equivalent) calculated by the OECD is widely used as an indicator of distortions created by agricultural policies. In this paper we demonstrate that changes in the relative (percentage) PSE are not an accurate indicator of the implications of policy reform for domestic welfare or for trade distortions. We demonstrate that it is important to consider the implications of changes in both the level and the form of support in evaluating the impact of policy reform. Using a model of Norwegian agriculture we show that reforms indicated towards the provision of public goods, while apparently leading to an increase in relative support, are actually superior to existing agricultural policies or to a policy aimed at eliminating subsidized exports both in terms of reducing trade distortions and increasing domestic economic welfare.

Norges Handelshøyskole

This paper summarises a decade of research by the authors into the welfare economic foundations for agricultural policy. The main results are that the levels of support to agriculture in rich developed countries like Norway are way out of proportion with what could conceivably be defended by welfare theoretic arguments. However, the present debate on the multifunctional role of agriculture points to valid arguments for agricultural support. In terms of welfare economics these arguments are found in the links between agriculture and public goods like landscape amenities and food security. This paper offers a modest attempt to quantify the Pigouvian subsidies that could be derived from these arguments.

Universitetet i Bergen

Universitetet i Bergen

MANGLER

A milk marketing board (MMB) is a legislatively specified compulsory marketing institution, and a common way to regulate markets for dairy products. MMBs are based on price discrimination. As price discrimination leads to unequal profitability between products, receipts from sales are pooled and farmers receive a single price adjusted for composition and quality. It is well documented that price discrimination through MMBs incurs an efficiency loss to the society. Earlier contributions, Ippolito and Masson (1978) and Serck-Hansen (1979), point to the fact that a particular high loss is incurred if export of dairy products is included in the MMB. It proves difficult to find examples where this is the case. MMB countries are either large with a low export share in dairy products (USA and Japan), have economies of scale (Australia) or exports are excluded from the MMB arrangement (Canada). We find Norway to be the only example. Using a numerical model of the Norwegian agricultural sector we show that substantial efficiency gain may be achieved by deregulating the dairy sector, mainly due to the elimination of exports. It is estimated that a transition to cost based pricing may increase the economic surplus by 1.4 billion NOK, which is 25 % of the production value. This computed gain from deregulation is far larger than for the other MMB-countries.

Seminar on the multifunctionality of agriculture

Samfunns- og næringslivsforskning (SNF)

The main objective here are markets with stochastic demand and supply. Agriculture provide prime instances. A key concern is how a buffer agency may learn to stabilize prices. We model such learning and identify conditions under which the process may generate necessary input for comparative welfare analysis.

Samfunns- og næringslivsforskning (SNF)

JORDMOD er en partiell likevektsmodell av det norske jordbruket utviklet for å kunne analysere konsekvenser av alternative utforminger av jordbrukspolitikken. På tilbudssiden har modellen 19 driftsformer som finnes i 6 størrelser og 9 regioner. Til sammen produseres 13 sluttprodukter og 8 mellomprodukter ved hjelp av innsatsfaktorer som areal, arbeidskraft, kapital, mellomprodukter og andre varer. Innenlandsk etterspørsel er representert ved lineære etterspørselsfunksjoner, mens import skjer til gitte verdensmarkedspriser. I modellen kan det knyttes subsidier til kriterier som antall dyr, antall dekar, antall årsverk og produksjon. I tillegg kan en beregne (endogent) de subsidiesatser som kreves for å oppfylle målsettinger knyttet til produksjon, arealbruk eller sysselsetting. Importvernet er modellert slik det er fastsatt i jordbruksavtalen i World Trade Organisation (tollsatser og minimumsimportkvoter). I meierisektoren er prisdiskrimineringen mellom produkter og markeder representert. Likevektsløsningen angir produksjon og faktorbruk, konsum og priser, eksport og import, subsidier og skjermingsstøtte, samt samfunnsøkonomisk overskudd, definert som summen av produsent- og konsumentoverskuddet, med fradrag av netto overføringer til jordbrukssektoren. Modellen er kalibrert med utgangspunkt i data for 1998. I forhold til tidligere modellversjoner er det tatt med flere driftsformer, som f. eks. kylling, økologisk melk, sau på innmarksbeite og produksjon av lyse kjøttslag uten eget spredeareal. Modellen fanger dermed bedre opp produksjonsmulighetene i jordbruket, også under rammebetingelser som avviker betydelig fra dagens. For øvrig er det foretatt en programmeringsmessig opprydding i modellen, slik at modellen fremstår som mer brukervennlig og oversiktlig. Rapporten viser også 4 eksempler på bruk av modellen. De to første beregningene viser ulike former for deregulering av norsk jordbruk, deriblant en avvikling av utjevningssystemet i meierisektoren, oppheving av konsesjonsregler og en sterk nedgang i støtte og importvern. De to siste beregningen forutsetter at sysselsetting og arealbruk til en viss grad skal opprettholdes, og illustrerer ulike måter å lese inn støtte på.

Seminar on the multifunctionality of agriculture

Norges handelshøyskole. Institutt for samfunnsøkonomi

In this paper we use a price endogenous mathematical programming mode l to estimate the national welfare losses induced by the Norwegian da iry policy. Firstly, we focus on welfare losses at the processing lev el due to price discrimination between different uses of the milk and cross-subsidisation of export. Secondly, we focus on inefficiency at the farm level due to small-scale farm units and a distribution of p roduction that does not reflect regional comparative advantages. Thir dly, we demonstrate that employment in depressed areas can be u pheld at far lower costs if the processing industry is deregulated and the rural farmers are supported through more direct payments.

Institutt for økonomi

In this paper we use a price endogenous mathematical model to estimat e the national welfare losses induced by the Norwegian dairy policy. Firstly w focus on welfare losses at the processing level due to pric e discrimination between different uses of the milk and cross-subsidi zation of export. Secondly, we focus on inefficiency at the farm leve l due to a small scale farm units and a distrubution of production wh ich does not reflect regional comparative advantages. Thirdly, we dem onstrate that employment in rural areas can be upheld at far lower co sts if the processing industry is deregulated and the rural farmers a re supported throug more direct payments.

Instiutt for økonomi

Only market failures justify support to an industry in a welfare econ omic setting. The amenity value of the landscape can be treated as a public good. Agricultural production will have an effect on this valu e which is external to agriculture. Recent studies find that the will ingness to pay for landscape preservation (WTP) may be considerable a nd that the marginal willingnss to pay (MWP) decreases with the volum e and intensity of agricultural activity. In this paper we discuss wh ether the amenity benefits of the agricultural landscape justify the level and form of agricultural support in a high support country like Norway. Based on existing studies of WTP we infer the likely value o f parameters in a WTP function for Norway. We include this WTP functi on in the objective function of a price endogenous mathematical progr amming model for the Norwegian agricultural sector. Given no other su pport to agriculture than that generated by the MWP for landscape pre servation, the optimal size of Norwegian agriculture measured by empl oyment is less than 20% of the current level, while land use is betwe en 50% and 60% of today`s use. The simultation experiment indicates t hat only a minor fraction of today`s generous support would be upheld in optimum, while production would drop to low levels. But even if t he landscape preservation argument is not able to defend today`s leve l of production and employment, it may be strong enough to keep a maj or part of today`s agricultural surface under cultivation.

Stiftelsen for samfunns- og næringslivsforskning

Gyldendal Akademisk

At ressursbruken i forbindelse med jordbrukspolitikken tas opp til kr itisk vurdering, er absolutt på tide. Norge ligger i verdenstoppen nå r det gjelder støtte til jordbruket, og ressursbruken i jordbruket fo rtrenger andre viktige samfunnsoppgaver. En hovedårsak til de høye ko stnadene er de mange ambisiøse målene for jordbrukspolitikken. I Utvi kling eller avvikling - jordbruket ved en skillevei drøftes holdbarhe ten til de ulike argumentene som benyttes for å sikre jordbruket særv ilkår. Det konkluderes med at det stort sett bare er eksistensen av k ollektive goder som matvaresikkerhet og kulturlandskap som kan forsva re offentlige inngrep i jordbrukssektoren. Men målene knyttet til pro duksjon av kollektive goder gir ikke grunnlag for verken den formen e ller det nivået som jordbruksstøtten har i dag. De kollektive godene kan tilbys mye billigere til samfunnet og med en betydelig lavere pro duksjon, syssel setting og arealbruk enn i dag. Dette krever en kraft ig og hurtig omlegging av jordbrukspolitikken. I boken skisseres de n ødvendige skritt i riktig retning.

[Mangler utgivernavn]

Workshop on Agricultural Policy and the Cultural Landscape at H olmenkollen Park Hotel, NFR Prosject number 106815/720

[Mangler utgivernavn]